ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING RESEARCH Assignment (Developing Research Question)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING RESEARCH Assignment (Developing Research Question)

BAB I

INTRODUCTION

A.    Background

Research is to finding a problem solve to solution in analyzing. Robert Adams, a high school teacher in Omaha, Nebraska, wants to investigate whether the inquiry method will increase the interest of his eleventh-grade students in history. Phyllis Gomez, a physical education teacher in an elementary school in Phoenix, Arizona, wants to find out how her sixth-grade students feel about the new exercise program recently  mandated by the school district. Tami Mendoza, a counselor in a large inner-city high school in San Francisco, wonders whether a client- centered approach might help ease the hostility that many of her students display during counseling sessions. Each of these examples presents a problem that could serve as a basis for research. Research problems—the focus of a research investigation— are what this chapter is about. This chapter to introduce or expand on many of the basic ideas involved in educational research. These include concepts such as hypotheses, variables, sampling, measurement, validity, reliability, and many others. We also begin to supply you with certain skills that will enhance your ability to understand and master the research process. These include such things as how to select a research problem, formulate a hypothesis, conduct a literature search, choose a sample, defi ne words and phrases clearly, develop a valid instrument, plus many others. Regardless of the methodology a researcher uses, all of these skills are important to master. We also discuss the ethical implications involved in the conduct of research itself.

B.     Problem Foundation

1.      What is the research question?

2.      what are the characteristics of the research question?

C.    Problem Purpose

1.      To found out the best way to make good question.

BAB II

CONTENT

A.    Defition Research

1.      What Is a Research Problem?

A research problem is exactly that—a problem that someone would like to research.

For researchers and students alike, research problems are usually identified from several sources including:

(a) The research literature— sees detailed discussion in Chapter 3 on the role of the literature review in formulating research questions;

(b) Problems in practice or work related contexts; and

(c) Personal biography or history (such as current or past personal experiences or identities, race, ethnicity, gender, class background, family customs, religion, and so forth).  

2.      Research Question

Research Questions Usually a research problem is initially posed as a question, which serves as the focus of the researcher’s investigation. In our view, the research question should dictate the research type and paradigm (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method) used to conduct the study rather than the other way around, i.e., the methodology determining the question. The following examples of initial research questions in education are not sufficiently developed for actual use in a research project but would be suitable during the early stage of formulating a research question. An appropriate methodology and research paradigm (in parentheses) are provided for each question. Although there are other possible methodologies that might be used, we consider those given here as particularly suitable.

• Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional therapy? (Experimental research; quantitative) 

• What goes on in after-school programs during an average week? (Ethnographic research; qualitative) 

• Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (Single - subject experimental research; quantitative) 

• Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (Causal-comparative research; quantitative or mixed method) 

• How can we predict which students might have trouble learning certain kinds of subject matter? (Correlational research; quantitative) 

• How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (Survey research; quantitative) 

3. Does high school achievement infl uence the academic achievement of university students?   

4. What is the best way to teach grammar? 

5. What would schools be like today if World War II had not occurred? We hope you identifi ed questions 2 and 3 as the two that are researchable. Questions 1, 4, and 5, as stated, cannot be researched.

Question 1 is another metaphysical question and, as such, does not lend itself to empirical research (we could ask people if they   believe  God is good, but that would be another question).

Question 2 asks for the “best” way to do something. Think about this one for a moment. Is there any way we can determine the best way to do anything? To be able to  determine this, we must examine every possible alternative, and a moment’s refl ection brings us to the realization that this can never be accomplished. How would we ever be sure that all possible alternatives have been  examined?

Question 3 requires the creation of impossible conditions. We can, of course, investigate what people  think  schools would be like. 

Chapter 4.    Let us discuss some of these characteristics in more detail.

• Why do first-generation college students have a lower graduation rate at San Simeon University? (case study; mixed method) 

• How can principals improve faculty morale at lowperforming middle schools? (interview research; qualitative) What all these questions have in common is that we can collect data of some sort to answer them (at least in part). That’s what makes them researchable. For example, a researcher can measure the satisfaction levels of clients who receive different methods of therapy. Or researchers can observe and interview in order to describe the functioning of an elementary school classroom. To repeat, then, what makes these questions researchable is that some sort of information  can  be collected to answer them. T here are other kinds of questions, however, that  cannot  be answered by collecting and analyzing data. Here are two examples: 

• Should philosophy be included in the high school curriculum? 

• What is the meaning of life?   

Why can’t these questions be researched? What about them prevents us from collecting information to answer them? The reason is both simple and straightforward: There is no way to collect information to answer either question. Both questions are, in the fi nal analysis, not researchable.  The fi rst question is a question of  value —it implies notions of right and wrong, proper and improper—and therefore does not have any    empirical    (or observable)    referents.

There is no way to deal, empirically, with the verb  should.  How can we empirically determine whether or not something “should” be done? What data could we collect? There is no way for us to proceed. However, if the question is changed to “Do people  think  philosophy should be included in the high school curriculum?” it becomes researchable. Why? Because now we can collect data to help us answer the question. T he second question is  metaphysical  in nature— that is, transcendental, beyond the physical. Answers to this sort of question lie beyond the accumulation of information.  Here are more ideas for research questions. Which ones (if any) do you think are researchable?   

3.      Characteristics of Good Research Questions

  Once a research question has been formulated, researchers want to turn it into as good a question as possible. Good research questions possess four essential characteristics.

1. The question is feasible (i.e., it can be investigated without expending an undue amount of time, energy, or money).

2. The question is clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key words in the question mean). 

3. The question is significant (i.e., it is worth investigating because it will contribute important knowledge about the human condition).

4. The question is ethical (i.e., it will not involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or social environment of which they are a part). We will discuss the subject of ethics in detail in Chapter 4.

4.      Research Question Should Be Feasible

Feasibility is an important issue in designing research studies. A feasible question is one that can be investigated with available resources. Some questions (such as those involving space exploration, for example, or the study of the long-term effects of special programs, such as Head Start) require a great deal of time and money; others require much less. Unfortunately, the field of education, unlike medicine, business, law, agriculture, pharmacology, or the military, has never established an ongoing research effort tied closely to practice. Most of the research that is done in schools or other educational institutions is likely to be done by “outsiders”—often university professors and their students—and usually is funded by temporary grants. Thus, lack of feasibility often seriously limits research efforts. Following are two examples of research questions, one feasible and one not so feasible.

Feasible:  How do the students at Oceana High School feel about the new guidance program recently instituted in the district?

Not so feasible: How would achievement be affected by giving each student his or her own laptop computer to use for a semester?[1]

5.      Research Question Should be Clear

Because the research question is the focus of a research investigation, it is particularly important that the question be clear. What exactly is being investigated? Let us consider two examples of research questions that are not clear enough.

Example 1. “Is a humanistically oriented classroom effective?” Although the phrase humanistically oriented classroom may seem quite clear, many people may not be sure exactly what it means. What is a humanistically oriented classroom? We begin to discover that it is not as easy as we might have thought to describe its essential characteristics. What happens in such classrooms that are different from what happens in other classrooms? Do teachers use certain kinds of strategies? Do they lecture? In what sorts of activities do students participate? What do such classrooms look like––how is the seating arranged, for example? What kinds of materials are used? Is there much variation to be found from classroom to classroom in the strategies employed by the teacher or in the sorts of activities in which students engage? Do the kinds of materials available and/or used vary? Another term in this question is also ambiguous. What does the term effective mean? Does it mean “results in increased academic profi ciency,” “results in happier children,” “makes life easier for teachers,” or “costs less money”? Maybe it means all these things and more.

Example 2. “How do teachers feel about special classes for the educationally handicapped?” The first term that needs clarification is teachers. What age group does this involve? What level of experience (i.e., are probationary teachers, for example, included)? Are teachers in both public and private schools included? Are teachers throughout the nation included, or only those in a specific locality? Does the term refer to teachers who do not teach special classes as well as those who do? The phrase feel about is also ambiguous. Does it mean opinions? Emotional reactions? Does it suggest actions? or what? The terms special classes and educationally handicapped also need to be clarified. An example of a legal definition of an educationally handicapped student is A minor who, by reason of marked learning or behavioral disorders, is unable to adapt to a normal classroom situation. The disorder must be associated with a neurological handicap or an emotional disturbance and must not bedue to mental retardation, cultural deprivation, or foreign language problems Note that this definition itself contains some ambiguous words, such as marked learning disorders, which lend themselves to a wide variety of interpretations. This is equally true of the term cultural deprivation, which is not only ambiguous but also often offensive to members of ethnic groups to whom it is frequently applied. As we begin to think about these (or other) questions, it appears that terms which seemed at first glance to be words or phrases that everyone would easily understand are really quite complex and far more difficult to define than we might originally have thought.

6.      Research Question Should be Significant

Research questions also should be worth investigating. In essence, we need to consider whether getting the answer to a question is worth the time and energy (and often money). What, we might ask, is the value of investigating a particular question? In what ways will it contribute to our knowledge about education? to our knowledge of human beings? Is such knowledge important in some way? If so, how? These questions ask researchers to think about why a research question is worthwhile—that is, important or significant. It probably goes without saying that a research question is of interest to the person who asks it. But is interest alone sufficient justification for an investigation? For some people, the answer is a clear yes. They say that any question that someone sincerely wants an answer to is worth investigating. Others, however, say that personal interest, in and of itself, is an insufficient reason. Too often, they point out, personal interest can result in the pursuit of trivial or insignificant questions. Because most research efforts require some (and often a considerable) expenditure of time, energy, materials, money, and/or other resources, it is easy to appreciate the point of view that some useful outcome or payoff should result from the research. The investment of oneself and others in a research enterprise should contribute some knowledge of value to the field of education. Generally speaking, most researchers do not believe that research efforts based primarily on personal interest alone warrant investigation. Furthermore, there is some reason to question a “purely curious” motive on psychological grounds. Most questions probably have some degree of hidden motivation behind them, and for the sake of credibility, these reasons should be made explicit. One of the most important tasks for any researcher, therefore, is to think through the value of the intended research before too much preliminary work is done.

Three important questions should be asked:

1. How might answers to this research question advance knowledge in my field?

2. How might answers to this research question improve educational practice?

3. How might answers to this research question improve the human condition?

As you think about possible research questions, ask yourself: Why would it be important to answer this question? Does the question have implications for the improvement of practice? for administrative decision making? for program planning? Is there an important issue that can be illuminated to some degree by a study of this question? Is it related to a current theory that I have doubts about or would like to substantiate? Thinking through possible answers to these questions can help you judge the significance of a potential research question. In our experience, student justifications for a proposed study are likely to have two weaknesses. First, they assume too much—for example, that everyone would agree with them (i.e., it is self-evident) that it is important to study something like self-esteem or ability to read. In point of fact, not everyone does agree that these are important topics to study; nonetheless, it is still the researcher’s job to make the case that they are important rather than merely assuming that they are. Second, students often overstate the implications of a study. Evidence of the effectiveness of a particular  teaching method does not, for example, imply that the method will be generally adopted or that improvement in student achievement will automatically result. It would imply, for example, that more attention should be given to the method in teacher-training programs.

7.      RESEARCH QUESTIONS OFTEN INVESTIGATE RELATIONSHIPS

There is an additional characteristic that good research questions often possess. They frequently (but not always) suggest a relationship of some sort to be investigated. A suggested relationship means that two qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way. Are motivation and learning related? If so, how? What about age and attractiveness? speed and weight? height and strength? aprincipal’s administrative policies and faculty morale?

It is important to understand how the term relationship is used in research, since the term has other meanings in everyday life. When researchers use the term relationship, they are not referring to the nature or quality of an association between people, for example. What we and other researchers mean is perhaps best clarified visually.

The hypothetical data for group A show that out of a total of 32 individuals, 16 are Republicans and 16 are Democrats. It also shows that half are male and half are female. Group B shows the same breakdown by party affiliation and gender. What is different between the two groups is that there is no association or relationship between and political party in group A, whereas there is a very strong relationship between these two factors in group B. We can express the relationship in group B by saying that males tend to be Republicans while females tend to be Democrats. We can also express this relationship in terms of a prediction. Should another female join group B, we would predict she would be a Democrat since 14 of the previous 16 females are Democrats.[2]

B.     Qualitative Research Question

In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions.

1.      Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold.

2.      Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions. Several subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning.

3.      Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For example, the specificity of the questions in ethnography at this stage of the design differs from that in other qualitative strategies.

4.      Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something occurs, and this suggests to me probable cause-and-effect thinking that I associate with quantitative research and that limits the explanations rather than opening them up for participant views.

5.      Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge that may influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in great detail. I often ask, “What is the one, single concept that you want to explore?”

6.      Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the reader that the study will do the following:

·         Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative research)

·         Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology)

·         Discover (e.g., grounded theory)

·         Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)

·         Explore a process (e.g., case study)

7.      Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words that suggest quantitative research, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and relate.

8.      Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs in which the research questions remain fixed and never change throughout the study.

9.      Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.

10.  Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the information has not yet been given.

C.    Quantitative Research Question

In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are frequently used in social science research and especially in survey studies.[3]

Descriptive research questions

Descriptive research questions simply aim to describe the variables you are measuring. When we use the word describe, we mean that these research questions aim to quantify the variables you are interested in. Think of research questions that start with words such as "How much?", "How often?", "What percentage?", and "What proportion?", but also sometimes questions starting "What is?" and "What are?". Often, descriptive research questions focus on only one variable and one group, but they can include multiple variables and groups. We provide some examples below:

Question:         How many calories do Americans consume per day?

Variable:          Daily calorific intake

Group: Americans

Question:         How many calories do American men and women consume per day?

Variable:          Daily calorific intake

Group: 1. American men

2. American women

Question:         How often do British university students use Facebook each week?

Variable:          Weekly Facebook usage

Group: British university students

In each of these example descriptive research questions, we are quantifying the variables we are interested in. However, the units that we used to quantify these variables will differ depending on what is being measured.

Comparative research questions

 research questions aim to examine the differences between two or more groups on one or more dependent variables (although often just a single dependent variable). Such questions typically start by asking "What is the difference in?" a particular dependent variable (e.g., daily calorific intake) between two or more groups (e.g., American men and American women). Examples of comparative research questions include:

Question:         What is the difference in the daily calorific intake of American men and women?

Dependent variable:    Daily calorific intake

Groups:           1. American men

2. American women

Question:         What is the difference in the weekly photo uploads on Facebook between British male

and female university students?

Dependent variable:    Weekly photo uploads on Facebook

Groups:           1. Male, British university students

2. Female, British university students

Question:         What are the differences in usage behaviour on Facebook between British male and female university students?

Dependent variable:    Usage behaviour on Facebook (e.g. logins, weekly photo uploads, status changes, commenting

on other users' photos, app usage, etc.)

Group: 1. Male, British university students

2. Female, British university students

Groups reflect different categories of the independent variable you are measuring (e.g., American men and women = "gender"; Australian undergraduate and graduate students = "educational level"; pirated music that is freely distributed and pirated music that is purchased = "method of illegal music acquisition").

Comparative research questions also differ in terms of their relative complexity, by which we are referring to how many items/measures make up the dependent variable or how many dependent variables are investigated.

Relationship research questions

Whilst we refer to this type of quantitative research question as a relationship-based research question, the word relationship should be treated simply as a useful way of describing the fact that these types of quantitative research question are interested in the causal relationships, associations, trends and/or interactions amongst two or more variables on one or more groups. We have to be careful when using the word relationship because in statistics, it refers to a particular type of research design, namely experimental research designs  where it is possible to measure the cause and effect between two or more variables; that is, it is possible to say that variable A (e.g., study time) was responsible for an increase in variable B (e.g., exam scores). However, at the undergraduate and even master's level, dissertations rarely involve experimental research designs, but rather quasi-experimental and relationship-based research designs [see the section on Quantitative research designs]. This means that you cannot often find causal relationships between variables, but only associations or trends.

However, when we write a relationship-based research question, we do not have to make this distinction between causal relationships, associations, trends and interactions (i.e., it is just something that you should keep in the back of your mind). Instead, we typically start a relationship-based quantitative research question, "What is the relationship?", usually followed by the words, "between or amongst", then list the independent variables (e.g., gender) and dependent variables (e.g., attitudes towards music piracy), "amongst or between" the group(s) you are focusing on. Examples of relationship-based research questions are:

Question:         What is the relationship between gender and attitudes towards music piracy amongst adolescents?

Dependent variable:    Attitudes towards music piracy

Independent variable: Gender

Group: Adolescents

Question:         What is the relationship between study time and exam scores amongst university students?

Dependent variable:    Exam scores

Independent variable: Study time

Group: University students

Question:         What is the relationship amongst career prospects, salary and benefits, and physical working conditions on job satisfaction between managers and non-managers?

Dependent variable:    Job satisfaction

Independent variable: 1. Career prospects

2. Salary and benefits

3. Physical working conditions

Group: 1. Managers

2. Non-managers

As the examples above highlight, relationship-based research questions are appropriate to set when we are interested in the relationship, association, trend, or interaction between one or more dependent (e.g., exam scores) and independent (e.g., study time) variables, whether on one or more groups (e.g., university students)[4]

BAB III

CLOSING

A. Conclusion

            This chapter to introduce or expand on many of the basic ideas involved in educational research. These include concepts such as hypotheses, variables, sampling, measurement, validity, reliability, and many others. We also begin to supply you with certain skills that will enhance your ability to understand and master the research process. These include such things as how to select a research problem, formulate a hypothesis, conduct a literature search, choose a sample, define words and phrases clearly, develop a valid instrument, plus many others.

B. Suggestion

            This paper has some benefits for readers to raise their knowledge about how to developing research question and know about characterisctic of research question. On the other side, in writing of this paper there are certainly a number of weaknesses, therefore the authors really expect criticism and suggestions from readers to improve the quality of this paper.

Reference

Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E., and Hyun, Helen H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: The MacGraw Hills Companies, Inc, 28-29.

Creswell, W John. (2014). Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (forth  edition).  University of  Nebraska - Linclon.  p.188 - 189.

“Types of quantitative research questions” accessed from http://desertation.laerd.com/types-of-quantitative-research-question.php

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[1] Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E., and Hyun, Helen H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: The MacGraw Hills Companies, Inc, 28-29.

[2] Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E., and Hyun, Helen H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: The MacGraw Hills Companies, Inc, 28-29.

[3] Creswell, W John. (2014). Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (forth  edition).  University of  Nebraska - Linclon.  p.188 - 189.

[4] “Types of quantitative research questions” accessed from http://desertation.laerd.com/types-of-quantitative-research-question.php, on october 1st 2018 at 5.50 pm

A “METHODICAL” HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

A “METHODICAL” HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

·         APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE

Approach is was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching.

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach.

Technique is implementational that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective.

·         CHANGING WINDS AND SHIFTING SANDS

Changing winds and shifting sands is a cyclical pattern in which a new method emerged about every quarter of a century. Each new method broke from the old but took with it some of the positive aspects of the previous practices. A good example of this cyclical nature of methods is found in the “revolutionary” Audiolingual Method (ALM) (a description Follows) of the mid-twentieth century.

·         THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

The Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.

·         GOUIN AND THE SERIES METHOD

The history of “modern” foreign language teaching may be said to have begun in the late 1800s with Francois Gouin, a French teacher of Latin with remarkable insights. because, at the time, his influence was overshadowed by that of Charles Berlitz, the popular German founder of the Direct Method. Nevertheless, some attention to Gouin’s unusually perceptive observations about language teaching helps us to set the stage for the development of language-teaching methods for the century following the publication of his book, The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages in 1880. And Gouin had to go through a very painful set of experiences in order derive his insights. Having decided in mid-life to learn German, he took up residency in Hamburg for one year. “But alas …” the result was the same as before. In the course of the year in Germany, Gouin in memorized books, translated Goethe and Schiller, and even memorized 30.000 words in a German dictionary, all in the isolation of his room, only to be crushed by his failure to understand German afterward. Gouin was forced to return home last, After returning home, Gouin discovered that his three-year-old nephew had, during that year, gone through the wonderful stage of child language acquisition in which we went from saying virtually nothing at all to becoming a veritable chatterbox of French. So Gouin set about devising a teaching method that would follow from this insights. And thus the series Method was created, a method that taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations) a “series” of connected sentences that are easy to perceive

·         THE DIRECT METHOD

The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to the emergence of the Audiolingual Method.

·         THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

The Audiolingual Method was based on linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive analysis of a wide assortment of languages. On the other hand, conditioning and habit-formation models of learning put forward by behaviouristic phychologists were married with the pattern practices of the Audiolingual Method.

·         COGNITIVE CODE LEARNING

Cognitive code learning was not so much a method as it was an approach that emphasized a conscious awareness of rules and their applications to second language learning.

·         DESIGNER” METHODS OF THE SPIRITED 1970S

1.      Community Lenguage Learning

Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a "humanistic approach." Links can also be made between CLL procedures and those of bilingual education, particularly the set of bilingual procedures referred to as "language alternation" or "code switching." Let us discuss briefly the debt of Community Language Learning to these traditions.

2.      Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia promised great results if we use our brain power and inner capacities. Of course, suggestopedia offered valuable insights into the "superlearning" powers of our brain but it was demolished on several fronts. For instance, what happens if our classrooms are bereft of such amenities as comfortable seats and Compact Disk players? Certainly, this method is insightful and constructive and can be practised from time to time, without necessarily having to adhere to all its premises. A relaxed mind is an open mind and it can help a student to feel more confident and, in a sense, pliable.

3.      The Silent Way

The Silent Way is venture into the field of foreign language teaching. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.

The Silent Way belongs to the latter tradition, which views learning as a problem-solving, creative, di scovering activity, in which thlearner is a principal actor rather than a bench-bound listener.

4.      Total Physical Response

Total physical response is the one we will examine in detail here in order to see how the principles of the comprehension approach are put into practice.

5.      The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach with what they call "traditional" approaches to language teaching. Traditional approaches are defined as " based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the nati ve language" and, perhaps, needless to say, without reference to grammatical analysis, grammatical drilling, or to a particular theory of grammar.

REFERENCES

Richards, Jack C., & Rodgers, Theodore S  (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge language teaching library, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Bron H.Douglas (2007). Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language pedagogy. Person: Longman, San Francisco State University.

Anthony Edward M. (1963). ELT journal volume XVII issue 2, University of Michigan.

Freeman Diane Larsen (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. OXFORD University Press.

MAKALAH FILSAFAT HUKUM ISLAM (HAKIKAT PENDIDIKAN ISLAM)

MAKALAH FILSAFAT HUKUM ISLAM (HAKIKAT PENDIDIKAN ISLAM)

BAB I

   PENDAHULUAN

1.        Latar Belakang Masalah

Mengingat di Indonesia mayoritas masyarakatnya muslim dan merupakan penduduk muslim terbesar di dunia, tetapi terdapat karakter-karakter anak didik maupun masyarakat Indonesia yang tidak sesuai dengan pendidikan Islam. Pemerintah Indonesia pun kurang mengetahui dan memahami tentang pentingnya pendidikan Islam terhadap masyarakat indonesia. Maka kami akan mencoba untuk menela’ah sekaligus membahas tentang hakekat pendidikan Islam.

2.        Rumusan Masalah

a)         Apa pengertian pendidikan Islam?

b)        Apa saja prinsip-prinsip pendidikan islam?

c)        Apa saja tugas dan fungsi pendidikan islam?

d)        Apakah perbedaan  system pendidikan islam dengan system pendidikan non islam?

3.       Tujuan Masalah

a)        Dapat mengetahui pendidikan islam

b)       Mengetahui apasaja prinsip-prinsip pendidikan islam

c)       Mengetahui  tugas dan fungsi pendidikan islam

d)       Mengetahui perbedaan pendidikan islam dengan system pendidikan non islam

BAB II

PEMBAHASAN

HAKIKAT PENDIDIKAN ISLAM

Hakekat pendidikan Islam adalah semua yang ada pada diri manusia tidak terlepas dari pendidikan khususnya pendidikan Islam yang menjadi landasan yang mendasar dan menjadi acuan bagi manusia untuk memulai pendidikan dan mencapai tujuan pendidikan yang diharapkan.

A.   Pengertian Pendidikan Islam

Menurut para ahli pendidikan islam memiliki pengertian sbb:

A.    Al- Syaibamy:mengemukakan pendidikan islam adalah proses mengubah tingkah laku individu peserta didik pada kehidupan pribadi,masyarakat,dan alam sekitarnya.proses tersebut dilakukan dengan cara pendidikan dan pengajaran sebagai suatu aktivitas asasi dan profesi diantara sekian banyak profesi asasi dalam masyarat.

B.     Ahmad Tafsir: mendifinisikan pendidikan islam sebagai bimbingan yang diberikan oleh seseorang agar ia berkembang secara maksimal sesuai dengan ajaran islam.

Ilmu pendidikan Islam adalah ilmu yang digunakan dalam proses pendidikan yang berdasarkan ajaran Islam sebagai pedoman umat manusia khususnya umat Islam.

Pendidikan adalah segala upaya , latihan dan sebagainya untuk menumbuh kembangkan segala potensi yang ada dalam diri manusia baik secara mental, moral dan fisik untuk menghasilkan manusia yang dewasa dan bertanggung jawab sebagai makhluk yang berbudi luhur.

Sedangkan pendidikan Islam adalah suatu sistem pendidikan yang berlandaskan ajaran Islam yang mencangkup semua aspek kehidupan yang dibutuhkan manusia sebagai hamba Alloh sebagaimana Islam sebagai pedoman kehidupan dunia dan akhirat.

Pendidikan sebagai usaha membina dan mengembangkan peribadi manusia dari aspek-aspek rohaniah dan jasmaniah juga harus berlangsung secara bertahap. Oleh karena suatu kematangan yang bertitik akhir pada optimalisasi perkembangan/pertumbuhan, baru dapat tercapai bilamana berlangsung melalui peroses demi peroses kearah tujuah akhir perkembangan atau pertumbuhannya.

B.   Prinsip – Prinsip pendidikan islam.

Kata “prinsip” adalah akar kata dari pricipia yang diartikan sebagai permulaan, yang dengan suatu cara tertentu melahirkan hal-hal lain, yang keberadaannya tergantung dari permula itu.

“Islam”  adalah agama yang diwahyukan oleh Allah swt. kepada nabi Muhammad saw. melalui perantaraan malaikat jibril. Yang berisi ajaran-ajaran, aturan-aturan, petunjuk-petunjuk yang dijadikan pedoman hidup bagi umat manusia, berupa Al-quran dan As-sunnah.

Prinsip berarti asas atau kebenaran yang jadi pokok dasar orang berfikir, bertindak dan sebagainya. Menurut Dagobert D. Runes yang dikutip oleh Syamsul Nizar, mengartikan prinsip sebagai kebenaran yang bersifat universal (universal truth) yang menjadi sifat dari sesuatu. Apabila dikaitkan dengan pendidikan, maka prinsip pendidikan dapat dikatakan sebagai kebenaran yang universal sifatnya dan menjadi dasar dalam merumuskan perangkat pendidikan. Prinsip pendidikan diambil dari dasar pendidikan, baik berupa agama atau ideologi negara yang dianut. Prinsip pendidikan Islam juga ditegakan di atas dasar yang sama dan berpangkal dari pandangan Islam secara filosofis terhadap jagad raya, manusia, masyarakat, ilmu pengetahuan dan akhlak. Pandangan Islam terhadap masalah-masalah tersebut, melahirkan berbagai prinsip dalam pendidikan Islam.

Prinsip-prinsip Pendidikan Islam

Prinsip-prinsip pendidikan islam meliputi, prinsip integrasi, prinsip keseimbangan, prinsip persamaan, prinsip pendidikan seumur hidup, dan prinsip keutamaan.

·         Prinsip Integrasi

§  Suatu prinsip yang seharusnya dianut adalah bahwa dunia ini merupakan jembatan menuju kampung akhirat. Karena itu, mempersiapkan diri secara utuh merupakan hal yang tidak dapat di elakkan agar masa kehidupan dunia ini benar-benar bermanfaat untuk bekal yang akan dibawa ke akhirat.

·         Prinsip Keseimbangan

§  Prinsip keseimbangan merupakan keharusan dalam pengembangan dan pembinaan manusia sehingga tidak adanya kepincangan dan kesenjangan antara material, spiritual, maupun unsure jasmani, dan rohani. Didalam Al-Quran Allah menyebutkan iman dan amal secara bersamaan.

·         Prinsip Persamaan

§  Prinsip ini berakar dari konsep dasar tentang yang mempunyai kesatuan asal yang tidak membedakan derajat, baik antara jenis kelamin, kedudukan sosial, bangsa, suku, ras, maupun warna kulit, sehingga siapapun orangnya tetap mendapatkan hak yang sama dalam pendidikan.

·         Prinsip Pendidikan Seumur Hidup

§  Prinsip pendidikan seumur hidup bukanlah hal yang baru, di kalang umat islam ada ungkapan seperti, tuntutlah ilmu mulai dari ayunan sampai keliang lahad. Sesungguhnya prinsip ini bersumber dari pandangan manusia mengenai kebutuhan dan keterbatasan didalam hidupnya yang selalu berhadapan dengan tantangan dan godaan yang dapat menjerumuskan manusia itu sendiri kedalam jurang kehinaan. Dengan demikian, manusia dituntut untuk menjadi pendidik bagi dirinya sendiri agar dapat mempaerbaiki dan meningkatkan kualitas dirinya serta menyesali perbuatan yang menyimpang dari jalan lurus.

·         Prinsip Keutamaan

§  Dengan prinsip keutamaan ini, pendidik bukan hanya bertugas menyediakan kondisi belajar bagi subjek didik, tetapi lebih dari itu turut membentuk kepribadiannya dangan perlakuan dan keteladanan yang ditunjukkan pendidik tersebut. Penerapan prinsip keutamaan ini adalah tindakan nyata seperti, perlakuan dan keteladanan. karena itu prinsip keutamaan sebagai landasan penerapan konsep-konsep pendidikan sekaligus menjadi tujuan pendidikan itu sendiri, yakni merupakan sesuatu yang diharapkan terbentuk dan tertanam pada diri setiap hasil didik.

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C.     Tugas dan Fungsi pendidikan islam

Pada hakikatnya, pendidikan adalah proses yang berlangsung secara kontiniu dan berkesinambuangan. Berdasarkan hal ini, maka tugas dan fungsi yang perlu di emban oleh Pendidikan Islam pendidikan manusia seutuhnya dan berlangsung sepanjang hayat. Konsep ini bermakna bahwa tugas dan fungsi pendidikan memiliki sasaran pada peserta didik yang senantiasa tumbuh dan berkembang secara dinamis mulai dari kandungan hingga akhir hayat.

Secara umum tugas pendidikan Islam adalah membimbing dan mengarahkan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan peserta didik dari tahap ke tahap kehidupannya sampai mencapai titik kemampuan optimal. Secara structural, pendidikan Islam menuntut adanya struktur organisasi yang mengatur jalannya proses pendidikan, baik dalam dimensi vertical maupun horizontal. Sementara secara institusional, ia mengandung implikasi bahwa proses pendidikan yang berjalan hendaknya dapat memenuhi kebutuhan dan mengikuti perkembangan zaman yang terus berkembang.

Bila dilihat secara operasional, fungsi pendidikan dapat dilihat dari dua bentuk, yaitu :

Alat untuk memelihara, memperluas, dan menghubungkan tingkat kebudayaan, nilai-nilai tradisi dan sosial,serata ide-ide masyarakat dan nasional.

Alat untuk mengadakan perubahan, inovasi dan perkembangan. Pada garis besarnya, upaya ini dilakukan melalui potensi ilmu pengetahuan dan skill yang dimiliki, serta melatih tenaga manusia (peserta didik) yang produktif dalam menemukan perimbangan perubahan sosialekonomi yang demikian dinamis.

D.   Perbedaan system pendidikan islam dengan system pendidikan non islam

Perbedaan system pendidikan islam dengan pendidikan non islam dapat dilihat dari aspek-aspek sebagai berikut:

1.     Sistem Ideologi

Islam memiliki ideologi al-tauhid yang bersumber dari al-Qur’an dan sunnah. Sedangkan non islam  berbagai macam ideilogi yang bersuber dari isme-isme materialis,komunis,ateis,social,kapitalis dan sebagainnya. dengan begitu dengan kedua sistem tersebut adlah memuat ideologi yang mendasarinnya.

Apabila ide pokok idioligi islam berupa al-tauhit,maka setiapa komponen dan tindakan sistem pendidikan islam harus berdasarkan al-tauhit pula. Maka tauhit bukan hanya sekedar meng-EsaKan tuhan seperti yang dipahami oleh kaum monoteis,melaikan juga meyakinkan kesatuan penciptaan,kesatuan manusia,kesatuan tujuan hidup.

2.     Sistem nilai

Pendidikan islam bersumber dari nilai al-qur’an dan sunah,sedangkan pendidikan non islam bersumber dari nilai yang lain. Formulasi ini relavan dengan kesimpulan di atas,sebab dalam ideologi islam itu bermuatan nilai-nilai dasar al-qur’an dan sunah,sebagai sumber asal dan ijtihad sebagai sumber tambahan. Pendidikan non islam sebenarnya ada juga sumber lainnya namun sumber lainnya hanya dari hasil pikiran,hasil,penelitian para akhli,dan adat kebiasan masyarakat.

3.     Orientasi pendidikan

Pendidikan islam berorientasi kepada duniawi dan ukhrawi,sedangkan pendidikan non islam orientasinnya duniawi semata. Di dalam islam kehidupan akhirat merupakan kelanjutan dari kehidupan dunia,bahkan suatu mutu kehidupan akhirat konsekuensi dari mutu kehidupan. Segala perbuatan muslim dalam bidang apapun memiliki kaitan dengan akhirat.

Islam sebagai agama yang bersifat universal berisi ajaran-ajaran yang dapat membimbing manusia kepada kebahagian dunia akhirat.

Allah SWT berfirman ;

“ Dan carilah apa yang telah dianugrahkan Allah kepadamu kebahagiaan negeri akhirat dan janganlah kamu melupakan kebahagiaan dan nikmat (dunia)..” (Q.S. Al-Mukmin :77)

Untuk ini islam mengajarkan kepada umatnya agar senantiasa menjalin hubungan erat dengan Allah dan manusia. Berdasrkan hal tersebut pendidikan islam berfungsi untuk menghasilkan mansia yang dapat menempuh kehidupan yang indah didunia dan kehidupan indah  di akhirat serta terlepas dari siksa yang amat pedih.

Berbeda dengan pendidikan barat yang bertitik tolak dari filsafat pragmatisme yaitu yang mengujur kebenaran menurut kepentingan waktu, tempat dan situasi, dan barahirnya pada garis hayat. Fungsi pendidikan tidaklah sampai  untuk menciptakan manusia yang dapat menempuh hidup yang indaah di akhirat, akan tetapi terbatas pada kehidupan duniawih semata.

               BAB III

                                                PENUTUP

                                       KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

A.    Kesimpulan

Hakekat pendidikan Islam adalah semua yang ada pada diri manusia tidak terlepas dari pendidikan khususnya pendidikan Islam yang menjadi landasan yang mendasar dan menjadi acuan bagi manusia untuk memulai pendidikan dan mencapai tujuan pendidikan yang diharapkan.

Ilmu pendidikan Islam adalah ilmu yang digunakan dalam proses pendidikan yang berdasarkan ajaran Islam sebagai pedoman umat manusia khususnya umat Islam.

Prinsip-prinsip pendidikan islam meliputi, prinsip integrasi, prinsip keseimbangan, prinsip persamaan, prinsip pendidikan seumur hidup, dan prinsip keutamaan.

Secara umum tugas pendidikan Islam adalah membimbing dan mengarahkan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan peserta didik dari tahap ke tahap kehidupannya sampai mencapai titik kemampuan optimal.

Perbedaan system pendidikan islam dengan system pendidikan non islam dapat dilihat dari beberapa aspek baik dari segi ideology,system nilai dan orientasi pendidikan.

B.     Saran

Sebagai seorang muslim hendaknya kita dapat mengetahui tentang hakikat pendidikan,pengertian pendidikan islam,prinsip-prinsip pendidikan islam maupun tugas dan fungsi pendidikan islam itu sendiri,selain itu hendaknya kita juga dapat mengetahui perbedaan-perbedaan system pendidikan islam dengan pendidikan non islam. Setelah membahas hakikat pendidikan Islam ini. Maka kami berharap pendidikan Islam lebih di utamakan dan di pelajari lebih mendalam, dan menanamkannya pada generasi muda agar syari’at dan ajaran Islam dapat di mengerti dan di pahami oleh generasi muda serta dapat pula di aplikasikan dalam kehidupan sehari- hari.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

M. Arifin. 1993. Filsafat Pendidikan Islam, Cet. III. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara

Muslim Usa dan Aden Wijdan SZ. 1997. Pemikiran Islam dalam Peradaban Industrial. Yogyakarta: Aditya Media

Nasir Budiman. 2001. Pendidikan dalam Persepektif Al-Qur’an, Cet.I,  Jakarta: Madani Pres

Arifin, H. M., Kapita Selekta Pendidikan (Islam & Umum), Jakarta: Bumi Aksara, 2000

Umar, Bukhari, Ilmu Pendidikan Islam, Jakarta: AMZAH, 2010

Abdullah, Boedi, Filsafat Ilmu (Kontemplasi Filosofis tentang Seluk-Beluk Sumber dan Tujuan Ilmu Pengetahuan), Bandung: CV. Pustaka, 2009

Badaruddin, Kemas, Filsafat Pendidikan Islam, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2007

Hitami, Munzir. 2004. Mengonsep Kembali Penddikan Islam. Yogyakarta : Infinity Press.

Mujib, Abdul. 2008. Ilmu Pendidikan Islam. Jakarta : Kecana.

Ramayulis. 2008. Ilmu Pendidikan Islam. Jakarta : Kalam Mulia.

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