1

loading...

Sunday, October 6, 2019

Summary The Post Method Era : Toward Informed Approaches


     Summary The Post Method Era : Toward Informed Approaches

    A.    The Dysfunction Of The Theory Practice Dichotomy
Mark clarke (1994) an implicit assumption about the relationship between what we have customarily called “theory“ and “practice”. By theory professional journals and books sometimes implied a creator or theorist,who carried out research and propussed the rudiments of an organized set of hypotheses and sometimes then further proposed a methodological “application” of the theory (hence the perhaps misguided term “applied linguistics”). The practice part of the formula was thought to be the province of claassroom teachers who all too gladly accepted the theorist’s pronouncements which came in the form of a method.The relationship between the theorist and pracititioner was (and in some cases still is) similar to that of a producer of goods and a consumer or customer.

    B.     An Enlightened ,Eclectic Approach
Approach is guide by a number of factors : your own experience as a learner in classroom,whatever teachingexperience you may already have had,classroom observations you have made,books you  have read,and previous courses in the field.There are three reasons for variation at the approach level :
a.       An approach is by definition dynamic and therefore subject to alterations and modification as a result of one’s observation and experience.
b.      Research in second languange acquisition and pedagogy almost always fields findings that are not conclusive but are subject to interpretation and
c.       We are constantly making new discoveries about languange learning and teaching as our profesional stockpile of knowledge and experience builds

In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.
Example: The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of synonyms of movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In another class the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the instructions for an exercise manual.
In the classroom : A typical lesson might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and TBL (the examples); the communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on lexical chunks in reading; and the structural-situational approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the presentation of new structures.

    C.     Communicative Languange Teaching
The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
Example : Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication.
In the classroom : Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result there may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and there may be use of authentic materials.
Savigon (2005) , communicative languange teaching(CLT) is an accepted paradigma with many interpretations and manifestation. For other kummaravadivelu (2006) CLT is laden with issues of “acceptability and adaptability” and insted we are exhorted to embrace task based languange teaching as a more appropriate model.
Characteristics of a CLT Approach :
1.         Overall goals,CLT suggests a focus on all of the components (grammatical,discourse,functional,sosiolinguistics,and strategic of communicative competence.Goals therefore must intervwine the organizational (grammatical,discourse) aspects of languange with the pragmatic(functional,sociolinguistics,strategi) aspect.
2.      Relationship of form and function. Laguange technique are designed to engage learners in the pragmatics,authentic,functional use of languange for meaningful purpose.Organizational languange form are not the central focus,but remain as important components of languange that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.
3.      Fluency And Accuracy. A focus on students “flow” of comprehension and production and a focus on the formal accuracy of production are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative technique. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in languange use.At other times the students will be encouraged to attend to correctness. Part of the teacher’s responbility is to offer approriate corrective feeback on learners errors.
4.      Focus on real world context. Students in communicative class ultimately have to use the languange,productively and receptively,in unrehearsed context outside the classroom. Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills necessary for communication in those contexts.
5.    Autonomy and strategic in volvement. Student are given opportunities to focus in their own learning process through raising their awareness of their own styles of learning (strengths,weaknesses,prederences) and through the development of awarness and action will help to develop autonumous learners capable of continuing to learn the languange beyond the classroom and the course.
6.      Teacher roles. The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide not an all knowing font of knowledge, The teacher is an empathetic “coach” who varies the students linguistic development. Students are encourged to construct meaning through geniune. Linguistict interaction with other students and with the teacher.
7.        Students role. Students in a CLT class are active participants in their own learning process. Learner-centered,cooperative,collaborative learning is emphasized but not at the expense appropriate teacher-centered activity.

D.Task-Based Languange Teaching
On of the most prominent perspectives withing the CLT framework is Task-Based Languange Teaching. While some researchers (kumaravadivelu,2006) argue that TBLT is a significantly different approach,other proponents (Ellis,2003) would claim that TBLT  is at the very heart of CLT. This approach puts the use of task at the core of languange teaching. While there is a good deal of variation among experts on how do describe of define task,Petter Skehan’s (1998,p.95) concepts of task still captures the essential. He defines task as an activity.
Task based instruction is a perspective withing a CLT framewrok that forces you to carefully consider all the technique that you use in the classroom in term of a number of important pedagogical purposes .
Characteristic of TBLT :
1.    Task ultimately point learners beyond the forms of languange alone to real world contexts.
2.    Task specifically contribute to communivative goals.
3.    Their elements are carefully designed and not simply haphaszardly or idiosyncratically thrown together.
4.    Their objectives are well specifield so that you can at some later point accurately determine the success of one task over another.
5.    Task engage learners ,at some levelin genuine problem solving activity.
Task-based language teaching provides many benefits to aid foreign language learning. Ellis (2009) lists these
benefits as follows:
Ø TBLT provides the opportunity for ‘natural’ learning within the classroom context.
Ø It stresses meaning over form; however, it can also emphasize learning form.
Ø It offers learners a fertile input of target language.
Ø It is intrinsically motivating.
Ø It is consistent with a learner-focused educational philosophy but also
gives permission for teacher input and guidance.
Ø It contributes to the improvement of communicative fluency while not disregarding accuracy.
Ø It can be deployed together with a more traditional approach.

E.Learners Centered Instrucion
This term applies to curricula as well as to specific technique. It can be contrasted with teacher centered instruction  and has received various recent interpretions. Learner centered instruction includes :
1.      Technique that focus on or account for learners need,style, and goals
2.      Technique that give some control to the student ( group work or strategy training for example)
3.      Curricula that include the consultion and input of students and that do not presuppose objectivies in advance
4.      Technique that allow for the student creativity and inovation
5.      Technique that enhance a students sense of competence and self worth
These are 7 characteristics of teacher-centered instruction :
1.      The teacher is the center of knowledge and in charge of learning
2.      Students are usually passively receiving information.
3.      The instructor’s role is to be primary information giver and primary evaluator.
4.      Students are viewed as “empty vessels” who passively receive knowledge from their teachers.
5.      Teachers and professors act as the sole supplier of knowledge, and under the direct instruction model, teachers often utilize systematic, scripted lesson plans.
6.      Teacher Centered Instruction is fairly low-tech, often relying on the use of textbooks and workbooks instead of computers
7.      Assessments are in many cases only carried out as summative and not formative evaluations and they rarely address qualitative issues of the learner’s progress.
F.Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is sometimes thought to be synonymous with collaborative learning. To be sure, in a cooperative clasroom the student and theachers work together to purpurea goals and objectives. But cooperative learning " Ia more structured, more prescriptive to teachers about Classroom techiques, more Directive to students about how to work together in groups [ than f. collaborative learning ] "( oxford, 1997,p 443).In cooperative learning models, a group learning activity is de pendent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners. In collaborative learning, the learning Enggeh" With more Copable others ( teachers, advanced peers, etc) Who provide Assistance anda quldence" (Oxford, 1997,p 444).Collaborative learning midels have been Deve loped within social an constructivist ( see chapter 1 of p LLT) schools of thought to promote communities of learners that cut across the usual hierarchies of student and teachers. 

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cooperative Learning Models or Cooperative Learning.
The strengths of cooperative learning are :
a)    gives students the opportunity to find their own concepts and ways to solve problems,
b)   provide opportunities for students to create creativity in communicating with peer groups,
c)    accustom students to be convincing open but firm,
d)   increase student learning motivation,
e)    helps teachers achieve their learning goals. Because the steps of cooperative learning are easy to apply in school,
f)    encourage teacher motivation to develop supportive media, because media is very important in cooperative learning.

The weakness of the cooperative learning model is the need for a long time to conduct discussions, such as ordinary group learning, students who are good at mastering the course of the discussion, so students who are less clever are less fortunate to issue their opinions, who do not need to learn by learning. In addition, in applying the cooperative learning model, groups are in need and difficult to work together.

G.Interactive Learning

At the heart of current theres of communicative comptence ia the assentially in teractive nature of communication. When you speak, for example the extent to which your intended messege is receved is a factor of both your production anda the listeners reception most meaning, in a samatic sense, is a product of negotiation, of give anda take, as interiocutors attempt to communicate, thus, the communicative purpose of, language compels us to create opportunities for genuine interaction in the Classroom. An Interactive couse or technique will provide for such negotiation Interactive classes will most likely be found. 

According to Suparman in Abdul Majid (2014: 85), interactive learning has the following characteristics:
a)         There are variations of classical, group and individual activities
b)         The mental involvement (thoughts, feelings) of students is high
c)         The teacher acts as a facilitator, resource person, and democratic classroom manager
d)        Implement multi-directional communication patterns
e)         A class atmosphere that is flexible, democratic, challenging, and kept under control by goals
f)          Potential can produce a more effective accompaniment effect
g)         Can be used inside or outside the classroom

The strength of the interactive learning model as proposed by Suprayekti in Abdul Majid (2014: 91) is that students learn to ask questions, try to formulate questions, and try to find answers to their own questions by observing. In this way, students become critical and active in learning. As for the weaknesses of this learning model, it really depends on the teacher's ability to organize and develop group dynamics.

H.Whole Language Education 

A term that once swept through our profession and is still in common use is whole language education. Unfortunately lost the impact that is once had. Intially the term come from reading research and wad used to emphsize. 
This methodology involves teaching reading skills in the context of interesting and stimulating literature. Supporters of this method believe children will learn to read naturally, just as they learn to talk and walk. By immersing children in good books, you can produce fluent and capable readers.
Teaching Principles
Ø  In the whole language approach reading should not be taught, but rather acquired through trial and error. The teacher facilitates the learning process, but provides little direct instruction.
Ø  Literature is used to excite the child about learning to read so that the child begins to memorise the many words he sees in books. Phonics is also taught, but within the context of the book being read. The teacher aims to point out phonic connections as they appear in the text.
Ø  There is an emphasis on comprehension as the ultimate goal of reading. It is considered more important that a child accurately understands the meaning of what he is reading, even if he does not recognise every individual word accurately.
Ø  Children are encouraged to guess unfamiliar words using picture or context clues.
Ø  Children are also encouraged to use invented spelling to write their own stories.

Whole language is a label that has been used to describe: 
·       cooperative learning 
·       participatory learning
·       student centered learning
·       focus on the community of learners
·       focus on the social nature of language
·       use of outhentic, natural language
·       meaning centered language. 
Advantages
  • Children are exposed to outstanding children’s literature from the very beginning of their reading experiences. They are not asked to read artificially simplified or contrived language. This makes reading more interesting for them.
  • They have a better understanding of what they are reading, and a more interesting and creative approach to reading.
  • There are no lists of sounds or rules to be learnt.
  • Children are able to observe real reading behaviours in non-threatening situations and to imitate such behaviours without fear or shame.
Disadvantages
  • Children do not get a full phonic foundation and so are unable to decipher unfamiliar words.
  • Accuracy and correctness can be overlooked. A child might be praised for overall language use, even if he has misspelled many words.
  • There is a lack of structure in this method of teaching which puts a heavy burden on the teacher to develop their own curriculum and may be difficult for children who prefer a more organised way of learning.
I.Other Candidates For CLT Aproaches 

Richard and rodgers (2001) included multiple interlligences, neurliguistic programming, the lexical approach, and completency-based teaching among their approaches an methoods. larsen- Freeman(2002) described the partisipatoris approach, learning strategy training, and multiple intelligences in her book on teachniques and principles.Hermer (2001) adds humanistic teaching and the lexical approach to his list of approach and multiple intelligences.   Lexical approach is the hypothesis thet the assenal building block of language are words and word combinations, and that lexis therefore plays a central rol in designing language courses and Classroom methodology.michael lewis (1997) is perhaps the nest-known advocate for a lexical approach to L2 teaching. krashen (1997), who maintained that one cantik "do" Almost anything in a language with vocabulary, and one those lexical units are internalized. Other (grammatical and discourse) elements of language can be acquited, given a meaningful context. 

References 

Brown H.Douglas(2007).Teaching by principles an interactive approach to languange pedagogy:person :Longman,San Francisco State University
https://englishpost.org/characteristics-teacher-centered-instruction/

No comments:

Post a Comment