SUMMARY A “Methodical” History of Language Teaching
Methodology: Pedagogical practices
in general (including theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever
considerations are involved in “how to teach” are methodological.
A. Approaches
An approach is a theory about language learning or even a philosophy
of how people learn in general. They can be psychologically focused such as behaviorism
or cognitivism.
They can also be based on older philosophies such as idealism or realism.
Approaches are fuzzy and hard to define because they are broad in
nature. An example of an approach that leads to a method would be the
philosophies of scholasticism, faculty of psychology, or even perennialism. Each of
these philosophies encouraged the development of the mind in the way of a
muscle. Train the brain and a person would be able to do many different things.
These philosophies have impacted some methods of language teaching as we will
see below. 10 Tried, Tested and Trusted Language Teaching
Approaches:
B. Method
A method is an
application of an approach in the context of language teaching. An example of a
method is the grammar-translation method. This method employs the memorization
of various grammar rules and the translation of second language material to the
student’s native language. Students were able to develop the intellectual
capacity to understand the new language through a deductive process of
acquiring the rules of the language.The purpose is not to critique this method
but to show how it was derived from the approach that the mind needs to be
trained through intellectual exercises to be able to accomplish something.
Types of mhetod:
1)
The Direct
Method
These natural language learning principles provided the
foundation for what came to be known as the Direct Method, which refers to the
most widely known of the natural methods. Enthusiastic supporters of the Direct
Method introduced it in France and Germany (it was officially approved in both
countries at the turn of the century), and it became widely known in the United
States through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful
commercial language schools. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the term; he
referred to the method used in his schools as the Berlitz Method.) In practice
it stood for the following principles and procedures:
a)
Classroom
instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
b)
Only
everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
c)
Oral
communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized
around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small,
intensive classes.
d)
Grammar
was taught inductively.
e)
New
teaching points were introduced orally.
f)
Concrete
vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
g)
Both
speech and listening comprehension were taught.
h)
Correct
pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language.
The learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are
avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation.
2)
Grammar-translation
The principal characteristics of the GrammarTranslation Method were
these:
a)
The goal
of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its
literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign language study. Grammar Translation is a
way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed
analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the
task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. It
hence views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing
rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax
of the foreign language.
b)
Reading
and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to
speaking or listening.
c)
Vocabulary
selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught
through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical
Grammar-Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a
list of vocabulary items is presented with their translation equivalents, and
translation exercises are prescribed.
d)
The
sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the
lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language,
and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the
method. Earlier approaches to foreign language study used grammar as an aid to
the study of texts in a foreign language. But this was thought to be too
difficult for students in secondary schools, and the focus on the sentence was
an attempt to make language learning easier (see Howatt 1984: 131).
e)
Accuracy
is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation,
because of “the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy
which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, was a prerequisite for
passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up
during the century” (Howatt 1984: 132).
f)
Grammar is
taught deductively – that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which
are then practiced through translation exercises. In most Grammar-Translation
texts, a syllabus was followed for the sequencing of grammar points throughout
a text, and there was an attempt to teach grammar in an organized and
systematic way.
g)
The
student’s native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain
new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and
the student’s native language.
Learning is largely by translation to and from the
target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary
learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral
ability.
3)
Audio-lingual
The theory behind this method is that learning a
language means acquiring habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every
situations. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before being
seen in its written form. In a typical audiolingual lesson, the following
procedures would be observed:
a)
Students
first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing
the key structures that are the focus of the lesson. They repeat each line of
the dialogue, individually and in chorus. The teacher pays attention to
pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction of mistakes of pronunciation
or grammar is direct and immediate. The dialogue is memorized gradually, line
by line. A line may be broken down into several phrases if necessary. The
dialogue is read aloud in chorus, one half saying one speaker’s part and the
other half responding. The students do not consult their book throughout this
phase.
b)
The
dialogue is adapted to the students’ interest or situation, through changing
certain key words or phrases. This is acted out by the students.
c)
Certain
key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for pattern
drills of different kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and then
individually. Some grammatical explanation may be offered at this point, but
this is kept to an absolute minimum.
d)
The
students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or
vocabulary activities based on the dialogue may be introduced. At the beginning
level, writing is purely imitative and consists of little more than copying out
sentences that have been practiced. As proficiency increases, students may
write out variations of structural items they have practiced or write short
compositions on given topics with the help of framing questions, which will
guide their use of the language.
e)
Follow-up
activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further dialogue
and drill work is carried out.
4)
The
structural approach
This method sees language as a complex of grammatical
rules which are to be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the
verb "to be" is introduced and practised before the present
continuous tense which uses "to be" as an auxiliary.
5)
Suggestopedia
The theory underlying this method is that a language can
be acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By
various methods it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and
in this way the mental blocks to learning are removed.
The objectives of Suggestopedia are to deliver advanced
conversational proficiency quickly. It bases its learning claims on student
mastery of prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs and, indeed, suggests to the
students that it is appropriate that they set such goals for themselves.
Lozanov emphasizes, however, that increased memory power is not an isolated
skill but is a result of “positive, comprehensive stimulation of personality”
(Lozanov 1978: 253). A Suggestopedia course lasts 30 days and consists of ten
units of study. Classes are held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week. The central focus
of each unit is a dialogue consisting of 1,200 words or so, with an
accompanying vocabulary list and grammatical commentary. The dialogues are
graded by lexis and grammar.
6)
Total
Physical Response (TPR)
TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands
such as "Stand up", "Close your book", "Go to the
window and open it." The method stresses the importance of aural
comprehension.
7)
Communicative
language teaching (CLT)
The focus of this method is to enable the learner to
communicate effectively and appropriately in the various situations she would
be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as
inviting, suggesting, complaining or notions such as the expression of time,
quantity, location. At the level of language theory, Communicative Language
Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the
characteristics of this communicative view of language follow:
a)
Language
is a system for the expression of meaning.
b)
The
primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.
c)
The
structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
d)
The
primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural
features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified
in discourse.
8)
The Silent
Way
The Silent Way is the name of a method of language
teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher
should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be
encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way,
particularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods, grew out
of Gattegno’s previous experience as an educational designer of reading and
mathematics programs. The Silent Way shares a great deal with other learning
theories and educational philosophies. Very broadly put, the learning
hypotheses underlying Gattegno’s work could be stated as follows:
a)
Learning
is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned.
b)
Learning
is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
c)
Learning
is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little
as possible in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to
say. No use is made of the mother tongue.
9)
Community
Language Learning
Since linguistic or communicative competence is
specified only in social terms, explicit linguistic or communicative objectives
are not defined in CLL. Most of what has been written about it describes its
use in introductory conversation courses in a foreign language. CLL does not
use a conventional language syllabus, which sets out in advance the grammar,
vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and the order in which they
will be covered. The progression is topic-based, with learners nominating
things they wish to talk about and messages they wish to communicate to other
learners. The teacher’s responsibility is to provide a conveyance for these
meanings in a way appropriate to the learners’ proficiency level. In this
sense, then, a CLL syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner’s
expressed communicative intentions and the teacher’s reformulations of these
into suitable target-language utterances. Specific grammatical points, lexical
patterns, and generalizations will sometimes be isolated by the teacher for
more detailed study and analysis, and subsequent specification of these as a
retrospective account of what the course covered could be a way of deriving a
CLL language syllabus. As with most methods, CLL combines innovative learning
tasks and activities with conventional ones. They include:
a)
Translation.
Learners form a small circle. A learner whispers a message or meaning he or she
wants to express, the teacher translates it into (and may interpret it in) the
target language, and the learner repeats the teacher’s translation.
b)
Group
work. Learners may engage in various group tasks, such as small-group
discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a topic
for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be presented to
the teacher and the rest of the class.
c)
Recording.
Students record conversations in the target language.
d)
Transcription.
Students transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded for
practice and analysis of linguistic forms.
e)
Analysis.
Students analyze and study transcriptions of target-language sentences in order
to focus on particular lexical usage or on the application of particular
grammar rules.
f)
Reflection
and observation. Learners reflect and report on their experience of the class,
as a class or in groups. This usually consists of expressions of feelings – sense
of one another, reactions to silence, concern for something to say, and so on.
g)
Listening.
Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements they might
have elicited or overheard in class interactions.
h)
Free
conversation. Students engage in free conversation with the teacher or with
other learners. This might include discussion of what they learned as well as
feelings they had about how they learned.
In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links
between the teacher and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There
is much talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher for
repetition by the student.
10) Immersion
This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we
have at our school. ESL students are immersed in the English language for the
whole of the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc.
through the medium of the target language, English.
Immigrant students who attend local schools find
themselves in an immersion situation; for example refugee children from Bosnia
attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools.
11) Task-based language learning
The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task
which in itself is interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they
already have to complete the task and there is little correction of errors.
This is the predominant method in middle school ESL
teaching at Frankfurt International School. The tasks are subsumed in a major
topic that is studied for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for
example, students are engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster
presentation to the rest of the class. The tasks include reading, searching the
internet, listening to taped material, selecting important vocabulary to teach
other students etc.
12) The Natural Approach
This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen,
stresses the similarities between learning the first and second languages.
There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being
exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.
13) The Lexical Syllabus
This approach is based on a computer analysis of
language which identifies the most common (and hence most useful) words in the
language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly
the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of
authentic materials.
Lewis (2000) acknowledges that the lexical approach has
lacked a coherent learning theory and attempts to rectify this with the
following assumptions about learning theory in the lexical approach (Lewis
2000: 184):
a)
Encountering
new learning items on several occasions is a necessary but sufficient condition
for learning to occur.
b)
Noticing
lexical chunks or collocations is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
“input” to become “intake.”
c)
Noticing
similarities, differences, restrictions, and examples contributes to turning
input into intake, although formal description of rules probably does not help.
d)
Acquisition
is based not on the application of formal rules but on an accumulation of
examples from which learners make provisional generalizations. Language
production is the product of previously met examples, not formal rules.
e)
No linear
syllabus can adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of acquisition.
Procedures
Procedures are
the step-by-step measures to execute a method. These step-by-step measures are
called techniques and will be discussed next. Common procedures for the
grammar-translation method includes the following:
- The
class reads a text written in the second language.
- Student
translates the passage from the second language to their mother
tongue.
- Student
translates new words from the second language to their mother tongue.
- Student
is given a grammar rule and derived from the example they apply the rule
by using the new words.
- Student
memorizes the vocabulary of the second language.
- Student
memorizes grammar rules.
- Errors
made by the student are corrected by providing the right answers.
This is the process (with variation) that is used when
employing the grammar-translation method.
Techniques (also commonly referred to by other term): “Any of a wide variety of
exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing
lesson objectives.
REFERENCES
Arnold,
F. 1981. College English: “A Silent-Way
Approach.” Nara, Japan: Dawn Press.
Samimy,
K., and J. Rardin. 1994. “Adult language
learners’ affective reactions to community language learning”: A
descriptive study. Foreign Language Annals 27(3):379–90.
Brown,
H Douglas. 2007. “Teaching By Principles
An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, Third
Edition. America :Pearson Education.
Darian,
K. C. 1971. “Generative Grammar,
Structural Linguistics, and Language Teaching”. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury
House.
Richards,
Jack C. 1985. “The secret life of methods”.
In Jack C. Richards, The Context of Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Carroll,
J. B. 1953. “The Study of Language”: “A
Surveyor of Linguistics and Related Disciplines in America”. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Lozanov,
G. 1978. “Suggestology and Outlines of
Suggestopedy”. New York. Gordon and Breach.
Lewis,
M. 1993. “The Lexical Approach”.
London: Language Teaching Publications.
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