MAKALAH HUKUM PIDANA DI INDONESIA PADA MASA KERAJAAN NUSANTARA

MAKALAH HUKUM PIDANA DI INDONESIA PADA MASA KERAJAAN NUSANTARA

 

BAB I

PENDAHULUAN

1.1  Latar Belakang

Membicarakan sejarah hukum pidana tidak akan lepas dari sejarah bangsa Indonesia. Bangsa Indonesia mengalami perjalanan sejarah yang sangat panjang hingga sampai dengan saat ini. Beberapa kali periode mengalami masa penjajahan dari bangsa asing. Hal ini secara langsung mempengaruhi hukum yang diberlakukan di negara ini, khususnya hukum pidana. Hukum pidana sebagai bagian dari hukum publik mempunyai peranan penting dalam tata hukum dan bernegara. Aturan-aturan dalam hukum pidana mengatur agar munculnya sebuah keadaan kosmis yang dinamis. Menciptakan sebuah tata sosial yang damai dan sesuai dengan keinginan masyarakat.

Hukum pidana menurut Van Hammel adalah semua dasar-dasar dan aturan-aturan yang dianut oleh suatu negara dalam menyelanggarakan ketertiban hukum yaitu dengan melarang apa yang bertentangan dengan hukum dan mengenakan suatu nestapa kepada yang melanggar peraturan tersebut. Mempelajari sejarah hukum akan mengetahui bagaimana suatu hukum hidup dalam masyarakat pada masa periode tertentu dan pada wilayah tertentu. Sejarah hukum punya pegangan penting bagi yuris pemula untuk mengenal budaya dan pranata hukum.

            Hukum Eropa Continental merupakan suatu tatanan hukum yang merupakan perpaduan antara hukum Germania dan hukum yang berasala dari hukum Romawi “Romana Germana”. Hukum tidak hanya berubah dalam ruang dan letak, melainkan juga dalam lintasan kala dan waktu. Secara umum sejarah hukum pidana di Indonesia dibagi menjadi beberapa periode yaitu pada masa kerajaan Nusantara, masa Penjajahan dan masa KUHP 1915 sampai sekarang. Sehingga untuk lebih jelasnya tentang sejarah hukum pidana di Indonesia akan dibahas dalam bab selanjutnya.

1.2      Rumusan Masalah

1.       Bagaimana sejarah hukum pidana di Indonesia pada masa Kerajaan Nusantara?

2.       Apakah yang dimaksud Ilmu Hukum Pidana?

3.       Bagaimana keadaan hukum pidana diindonesia?

BAB II

PEMBAHASAN

2.1 Pengertian

Istilah Pidana berasal dari bahasa hindu Jawa yang artinya Hukuman, nestapa atau sedih hati, dalam bahasa Belanda disebut straf. Dipidana artinya dihukum, kepidanan artinya segala sesuatu yang bersifat tidak baik, jahat, pemidanaan artinya penghukuman. Jadi Hukum Pidana sebagai terjemahan dari bahasa belanda strafrecht adalah semua aturan yang mempunyai perintah dan larangan yang memakai sanksi (ancaman) hukuman bagi mereka yang melanggarnya.

Sedangkan menurut Prof. Moeljatno, S.H Hukum Pidana adalah bagian daripada keseluruhan  Hukum yang berlaku di suatu negara, yang mengadakan dasar-dasar dan aturan-aturan untuk:

1.      Menentukan perbuatan-perbuatan mana yang tidak boleh dilakukan dan yang dilarang, dengan disertai ancaman atau sanksi yang berupa pidana tertentu bagi barang siapa yang melanggar larangan tersebut.

2.      Menentukan kapan dan dalam hal-hal apa kepada mereka yang telah melanggar larangan-larangan itu dapat dikenakan atau dijatuhi pidana sebagaimana yang telah diancamkan.

3.      Menentukan dengan cara bagaimana pengenaan pidana itu dapat dilaksanakan apabila ada orang yang disangka telah melanggar larangan tersebut.

Hukum pidana tidak lahir dengan sendirinya atau dengan kata lain hukum pidana tidak lahir dari norma hukum itu sendiri, tetapi telah ada pada norma lain seperti norma agama, adat dan kesusilaan. Lahirnya hukum pidana adalah untuk menguatkan norma-norma tersebut.

2.2  Sumber - Sumber Hukum Pidana Indonesia

1. Sumber hukum tertulis dan terkodifikasi

a.       Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Pidana (KUHP)

KUHP ini mempunyai nama asli Wetboek van Strafrecht voor Nederlandsch Indie (WvSNI) yang diberlakukan di Indonesia pertama kali dengan Koninklijk Besluit (Titah Raja) Nomor 3315 Oktober 1915 dan mulai diberlakukan sejak tanggal 1 Januari 1918.13 WvSNI merupakan turunan dari WvS negeri Belanda yang dibuat pada tahun 1881 dan diberlakukan di negara Belanda pada tahun 1886. Walaupun WvSNI notabene turunan dari WvS Belanda, namun pemerintah kolonial pada saat itu menerapkan asas konkordansi (penyesuaian) bagi pemberlakuan WvS di negara jajahannya. Beberapa pasal dihapuskan dan disesuaikan dengan kondisi dan misi kolonialisme Belanda atas wilayah Indonesia. WvSNI berubah menjadi KUHP dan berlaku untuk seluruh wilayah Indonesia berdasarkan Undang-undang Nomor 1 tahun 1946 tentang Peraturan Hukum Pidana dan dipertegas dengan Undang-undang Nomor 73 tahun 1958 (LN nomor 127 tahun 1958)14tentang Peraturan Hukum Pidana untuk Seluruh Wilayah Republik Indonesia.

b.      Undang-undang Nomor 8 tahun 1981 tentang Hukum Acara Pidana.

Undang-undang Nomor 8 tahun 198115 atau biasa disebut dengan Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Acara Pidana (KUHAP). Peraturan yang menjadi dasar bagi pelaksanaan hukum acara pidana dalam lingkungan peradilan umum sebelum undang-undang ini berlaku adalah "Reglemen Indonesia yang dibaharui atau yang terkenal dengan nama "Het Herziene Inlandsch Reglement" atau H.I.R.16 (Staatsblad Tahun 1941 Nomor 44), yang berdasarkan Pasal 6 ayat (1) Undang-undang Nomor 1 Darurat. Tahun 1951, seberapa mungkin harus diambil sebagai pedoman tentang acara perkara pidana sipil oleh semua pengadilan dan kejaksaan negeri dalam wilayah Republik Indonesia, kecuali atas beberapa perubahan dan tambahannya.

Dengan Undang-undang Nomor 1 Darurat. Tahun 1951 itu dimaksudkan untuk mengadakan unifikasi hukum acara pidana, yang sebelumnya terdiri dari hukum acara pidana bagi landraad dan hukum acara pidana bagi raad van justitie. Adanya dua macam hukum acara pidana itu, merupakan akibat semata dari perbedaan peradilan bagi golongan penduduk Bumiputera dan peradilan bagi golongan bangsa Eropa di Jaman Hindia Belanda yang masih tetap dipertahankan, walaupun Reglemen Indonesia yang lama (Staatsblad Tahun 1848 Nomor 16) telah diperbaharui dengan Reglemen Indonesia yang dibaharui (R.I.B.)17  karena tujuan dari pembaharuan itu bukanlah dimaksudkan untuk mencapai satu kesatuan hukum acara pidana, tetapi justeru ingin meningkatkan hukum acara pidana bagi raad van justitie. Meskipun Undang-undang Nomor 1 Darurat. Tahun 1951 telah menetapkan bahwa hanya ada satu hukum acara pidana yang berlaku untuk seluruh Indonesia yaitu R.I.B, akan tetapi ketentuan yang tercantum di dalamnya ternyata belum memberikan jaminan dan perlindungan terhadap hak asasi manusia, perlindungan terhadap harkat dan martabat manusia sebagaimana wajarnya dimiliki oleh suatu negara hukum. Khususnya mengenai bantuan hukum di dalam pemeriksaan oleh penyidik atau penuntut umum tidak diatur dalam R.I.B, sedangkan mengenai hak pemberian ganti kerugian juga tidak terdapat ketentuannya.

Oleh karena itu demi pembangunan dalam bidang hukum dan sehubungan dengan hal sebagaimana telah dijelaskan di muka, maka "Het Herziene Inlandsch Reglement" (Staatsblad Tahun 1941 Nomor 44) berhubungan dengan dan Undang-undang Nomor 1 Darurat. Tahun 195118 (Lembaran Negara Tahun 1951 Nomor 59, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Nomor 81) serta semua peraturan pelaksanaannya dan ketentuan yang diatur dalam peraturan perundang-undangan lainnya, sepanjang hal itu mengenai hukum acara pidana, perlu dicabut karena tidak sesuai dengan cita-cita hukum nasional dan diganti dengan undang-undang hukum acara pidana baru yang mempunyai ciri kondifikatif dan unifikatif berdasarkan Pancasila dan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, yaitu Undang-undang Nomor 8 tahun 1981 tentang Hukum Acara Pidana atau dikenal dengan KUHAP.

2. Sumber hukum tertulis dan tidak terkodifikasi

Sumber hukum ini juga biasa disebut hukum pidana khusus, yaitu hukum pidana yang mengatur golongan-golongan tertentu atau terkait dengan jenis-jenis tindak pidana tertentu. Sumber hukum pidana khusus di Indonesia  ini di antaranya KUHP Militer, dan beberapa perundang-undangan antara lain:

a.        Undang-undang Nomor 22 tahun 1997 tentang Narkotika

b.      Undang-undang Nomor 5 tahun 1997 tentang Psikotropika

c.        Undang-undang Nomor 31 tahun 1999 tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi

3. Ketentuan Pidana dalamPeraturan perundang-undangan non-pidana

 Contoh UU non pidana yang memuat sanksi Pidana:

· UU Lingkungan

· UU Pers

· UU PendidikanNasional

· UU Perbankan

· UU Pajak

· UU PartaiPolitik

· UU pemilu

· UU Merek

· UU Kepabeana

· UU PasarModal Pidana

 2.3 Sejarah Terjadinya KUH pidana

1.      Masa Kerajaan Nusantara

Pada masa kerajaan Nusantara banyak kerajaan yang sudah mempunyai perangkat aturan hukum. Aturan tersebut tertuang dalam keputusan para raja ataupun dengan kitab hukum yang dibuat oleh para ahli hukum. Tidak dipungkiri lagi bahwa adagium ubi societas ibi ius sangatlah tepat. Karena di manapun manusia hidup, selama terdapat komunitas dan kelompok maka akan ada hukum. Hukum pidana yang berlaku dahulu kala berbeda dengan hukum pidana modern. Hukum pada zaman dahulu kala belum memegang teguh prinsip kodifikasi. Aturan hukum lahir melalui proses interaksi dalam masyarakat tanpa ada campur tangan kerajaan. Hukum pidana adat berkembang sangat pesat dalam masyarakat.

Hukum pidana yang berlaku saat itu belum mengenal unifikasi. Di setiap daerah berlaku aturan hukum pidana yang berbeda-beda. Kerajaan besar macam Sriwijaya sampai dengan kerajaan Demak pun menerapkan aturan hukum pidana. Kitab peraturan seperti Undang-undang raja niscaya, undang-undang mataram, jaya lengkara, kutara Manawa, dan kitab Adilullah berlaku dalam masyarakat pada masa itu. Hukum pidana adat juga menjadi perangkat aturan pidana yang dipatuhi dan ditaati oleh masyarakat nusantara.

Hukum pidana pada periode ini banyak dipengaruhi oleh agama dan kepercayaan masyarakat. Agama mempunyai peranan dalam pembentukan hukum pidana di masa itu. Pidana potong tangan yang merupakan penyerapan dari konsep pidana Islam serta konsep pembuktian yang harus lebih dari tiga orang menjadi bukti bahwa ajaran agam Islam mempengaruhi praktik hukum pidana tradisional pada masa itu.

2.        Masa Penjajahan

Pada masa periodisasi ini sangatlah panjang, mencapai lebih dari empat abad. Indonesia mengalami penjajahan sejak pertama kali kedatangan bangsa Portugis, Spanyol, kemudian selama tiga setengah abad dibawah kendali Belanda. Indonesia juga pernah mengalami pemerintahan dibawah kerajaan Inggris dan kekaisaran Jepang. Selama beberapa kali pergantian pemegang kekuasaan atas nusantara juga membuat perubahan besar dan signifikan.

            Pola pikir hukum barat yang sekuler dan realis menciptakan konsep peraturan hukum baku yang tertulis. Pada masa ini perkembangan pemikiran rasional sedang berkembang dengan sangat pesat. Segala peraturan adat yang tidak tertulis dianggap tidak ada dan digantikan dengan peraturan-peraturan tertulis. Tercatat beberapa peraturan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah kolonial Belanda seperti statuta Batavia (statute van batavia). Berlaku dua peraturan hukum pidana yakni KUHP bagi orang eropa (weetboek voor de europeanen) yang berlaku sejak tahun 1867. Diberlakukan pula KUHP bagi orang non eropa yang berlaku sejak tahun 1873.

3.        Masa KUHP 1915 - Sekarang

Selama lebih dari seratus tahun sejak KUHP Belanda diberlakukan, KUHP terhadap dua golongan warganegara yang berbeda tetap diberlakukan di Hindia Belanda. Hingga pada akhirnya dibentuklah KUHP yang berlaku bagi semua golongan sejak 1915. KUHP tersebut menjadi sumber hukum pidana sampai dengan saat ini. Pembentukan KUHP nasional ini sebenarnya bukan merupakan aturan hukum yang menjadi karya agung bangsa. Sebab KUHP yang berlaku saat ini merupakan sebuah turunan dari Nederland Strafwetboek (KUHP Belanda). Sudah menjadi konskwensi ketika berlaku asas konkordansi terhadap peraturan perundang-undangan.

KUHP yang berlaku di negeri Belanda sendiri merupakan turunan dari code penal perancis. Code penal menjadi inspirasi pembentukan peraturan pidana di Belanda. Hal ini dikarenakan Belanda berdasarkan perjalanan sejarah merupakan wilayah yang berada dalam kekuasaan kekaisaran perancis. Desakan pembentukan segera KUHP nasional sebagai sebuah negara yang pernah dijajah oleh bangsa asing, hukum yang berlaku di Indonesia secara langsung dipengaruhi oleh aturan-aturan hukum yang berlaku di negara penjajah tersebut. Negeri Belanda yang merupakan negeri dengan sistem hukum continental menurunkan betuknya melalui asas konkordansi. Peraturan yang berlaku di Negara jajahan harus sama dengan aturan hukum negeri Belanda. Hukum pidana (straffrecht) merupakan salah satu produk hukum yang diwariskan oleh penjajah.

 Pada tahun 1965 LPHN (Lembaga Pembinaan Hukum Nasional) memulai suatu usaha pembentukan KUHP baru. Pembaharuan hukum pidana Indonesia harus segera dilakukan. Sifat undang-undang yang selalu tertinggal dari realitas sosial menjadi landasan dasar ide pembaharuan KUHP. KUHP yang masih berlaku hingga saat ini merupakan produk kolonial yang diterapkan di negara jajahan untuk menciptakan ketaatan. Indonesia yang kini menjadi Negara yang bebas dan merdeka hendaknya menyusun sebuah peraturan pidana baru yang sesuai dengan jiwa bangsa.

 2.4      Sistematika Hukum pidana

Sistem hukuman yang dicantumkan dalam pasal 10 tentang pidana pokok dan tambahan, menyatakan bahwa hukuman yang dapat dikenakan kepada seseorang pelaku tindak pidana terdiri dari :

a.       Hukuman Pokok (hoofd straffen ). 

1. Hukuman mati.

2. Hukuman penjara. 

3. Hukuman kurungan. 

4. Hukuman denda.

b.       Hukuman Tambahan (Bijkomende staffen) 

1. Pencabutan beberapa hak tertentu 

2. Perampasan barang-barang tertentu 

3. Pengumuman putusan hakim. 

Hukum Pidana dapat dibagi sebagai berikut:

1) Hukum Pidana Objektif (lus Punale), yang dapat dibagi ke dalam:

1. Hukum Pidana Materiil
2. Hukum Pidana Formil (Hukum Acara Pidana).

2) Hukum Pidana Subjektif (ius Puniendi).

3) Hukum Pidana Umum.

4) Hukum Pidana Khusus, yang dapat dibagi lagi ke dalam:

1. Hukum Pidana Militer.
2. Hukum Pidana Pajak (Fiskal).

2.5              Teori-Teori Hukum Pidana

1.        Teori Absolut

Teori Absolut disebut juga teori pembalasan. Pandangan dalam teori ini adalah bahwa syarat dan pembenaran dalam penjatuhan pidana tercakup dalam kejahatan itu sendiri, terlepas dari fungsi praktis yang diharapkan dari penjatuhan pidana tersebut. Dalam ajaran ini, pidana terlepas dari dampaknya di masa depan, karena telah dilakukan suatu kejahatan maka harus dijatuhkan hukuman. Dalam ajaran absolut ini terdapat keyakinan yang mutlak atas pidana itu sendiri, sekalipun penjatuhan pidana sebenarnya tidak berguna atau bahkan memiliki dampak yang lebih buruk terhadap pelaku kejahatan. Perlu diketahui bahwa maksud dan tujuan ajaran absolut ini selain sebagai pembalasan, menurut pandangan Stammler adalah juga untuk menunjukkan kepada masyarakat bahwa hukum telah ditegakkan. Tujuan pemidanaan dalam ajaran absolut ini memang jelas sebagai pembalasan, tetapi cara bagaimana pidana tersebut dapat dibenarkan kurang jelas, karena dalam ajaran ini tidak dijelaskan mengapa harus dianggap adil meniadakan rasa terganggunya masyarakat dengan cara menjatuhkan penderitaan terhadap seseorang yang melakukan kejahatan. Tindakan Pembalasan di dalam penjatuhan pidana mempunyai dua arah yaitu:

a.   Ditujukan pada penjahatnya (sudut subyektif dari pembalasan)

b.   Ditujukan untuk memenuhi kepuasan dari perasaan dendam di kalangan masyarakat (sudut obyektif dari pembalasan)

2.        Teori Relatif

Teori reltif atau teori tujuan berpangkal pada dasar bahwa pidana adalah alat untuk menegakan tata tertib (hukum) dalam masyarakat. Pidana adalah alat untuk mencegah timbulnya suatu kejahatan dengan tujuan agar tata tertib masyarakat tetap terpelihara. Dalam teori relatif penjatuhan pidana tergantung dari efek yang diharapkan dari penjatuhan pidana itu sendiri, yakni agar seseorang tidak mengulangi perbuatannya. Hukum pidana difungsikan sebagai ancaman sosial dan psikis. Hal tersebut menjadi satu alasan mengapa hukum pidana kuno mengembangkan sanksi pidana yang begitu kejam dan pelaksanaannya harus dilakukan di muka umum, yang tidak lain bertujuan untuk memberikan ancaman kepada masyarakat luas. Sementara itu, sifat pencegahannya dari teori ini ada 2 macam yaitu:

1. Teori pencegahan Umum

Menurut teori ini, pidana yang dijatuhkan pada penjahat ditujukan agar orang-orang menjadi takut untuk berbuat kejahatan. Penjahat yang dijatuhi pidana itu dijadikan contoh oleh masyarakat agar masyarakat tidak meniru dan melakukan perbuatan yang serupa dengan penjahat itu. Feuerbach memberkenalkan teori pencegahan umum yang disebut dengan Paksaan Psikologis. Dalam teorinya menghendaki penjeraan bukan melalui pidana, melainkan melalui ancaman pidana dalam perundang-undangan. Tetapi apabila ancaman tidak berhasil mencegah suatu kejahatan, maka pidana harus dijatuhkan karena apabila pidana tidak dijatuhkan akan mengakibatkan hilangnya kekuatan dari ancaman tersebut. Ajaran yang dikembangkan Feuerbach tidak mengenal pembatasan ancaman pidana, hanya syarat bahwa ancaman pidana tersebut harus sudah ditetapkan terlebih dahulu.

2. Teori pencegahan Khusus

Menurut teori ini, tujuan pidana ialah mencegah pelaku kejahatan yang telah dipidana agar ia tidak mengulang lagi melakukan kejahatan dan mencegah agar orang yang telah berniat buruk untuk tidak mewujudkan niatnya itu kedalam bentuk perbuatan nyata. Tujuan itu dapat dicapai dengan jalan menjatuhkan pidana yang sifatnya ada tiga macam yaitu menakut-nakutinya, memperbaikinya, dan membuatnya menjadi tidak berdaya. Van Hamel membuat suatu gambaran tentang pemidanaan yang bersifat pencegahan khusus yaitu:

a.   Pidana selalu dilakukan untuk pencegahan khusus, yakni untuk menakut-nakuti orang-orang yang yang cukup dapat dicegah dengan cara penjatuhan pidana agar orang tidak melakukan niat jahatnya.

b.   Akan tetapi, jika tidak dapat lagi ditakut-takuti dengan cara menjatuhkan pidana, penjatuhan pidana harus bersifat memperbaiki dirinya.

c.   Jika penjahat itu tidak dapat diperbaiki, penjatuhan pidana harus bersifat membinasakan atau membuat mereka tidak berdaya.

d.   Tujuan satu-satunya dari pidana adalah mempertahankan tata tertib hukum didalam masyarakat.

3.      Teori Gabungan

Teori ini mendasarkan pidana pada asas pembalasan dan asas pertahanan tata tertib masyarakat, dengan kata lain dua alasan itu menjadi dasar dari penjatuhan pidana. Teori gabungan dapat dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu:

a.   Teori gabungan yang mengutamakan pembalasan, tetapi pembalasan itu tidak boleh melampaui batas dari apa yang perlu dan cukup untuk dapatnya dipertahankan tata tertib dimasyarakat.

b.   Teori gabungan yang mengutamakan perlindungan tata tertib masyarakat, tetapi penderitaan atas dijatuhinya pidana tidak boleh lebih berat daripada perbuatan yang dilakukan terpidana.

Titik tolak dari ajaran ini, sebagaimana dianut oleh Hugo Grotius, adalah bahwa siapa yang berbuat kejahatan, maka ia akan terkena derita. Penderitaan dianggap wajar diterima oleh pelaku kejahatan, tetapi manfaat sosial akan mempengaruhi berat-ringannya derita yang layak dijatuhkan. Sejalan dengan pandangan tersebut, M.P. Rossi menyatakan bahwa selain pembalasan, prevensi umum juga dianggap tujuan penting dalam hukum pidana. Karena kita hidup dalam masyarakat yang tidak sempurna dan tidak mungkin juga untuk menuntut keadilan yang absolut, maka dapat kiranya kita mencukupkan diri dengan pemidanaan yang dilandaskan pada tertib sosial yang tidak sempurna tersebut. Dengan kata lain penerapan hukum pidana yang manusiawi dibatasi oleh syarat-syarat yang dituntut oleh masyarakat.

Pandangan seperti di atas dengan sudut pandang agama Katolik juga muncul seperti dikemukakan oleh Thomas Aquinas yang membedakan antara pidana sebagai pidana dan pidana sebagai obat. Maksud pembedaan yang dilakukan oleh Thomas Aquinas tersebut adalah ketika negara menjatuhkan pidana, maka perlu diperhatikan pula fungsi prevensi umum dan prevensi khusus. Dengan ajaran ini akan tercipta kepuasan nurani masyarakat dan ada pemberian rasa aman kepada masyarakat. Pembelajaran dan rasa takut juga akan muncul dalam masyarakat, termasuk perbaikan dari pelaku kejahatan. Negara dalam menjatuhkan pidana sebagai pembalasan, penjeraan, dan perbaikan disubordinasikan terhadap kemanfaatan dari penjatuhan pidana tersebut. Pidana sebagai pembalasan dipandang sebagai sarana untuk menegakkan tertib hukum.

Menurut pendapat saya teori hukum pidana yang ada di Indonesia adalah teori gabungan karena penjatuhan pidana yang ada di indonesia, didasarkan pada asas pembalasan dan pertahanan tata tertib masyarakat. Hal ini dapat di lihat pada KUHP yang ada di Indonesia. Peraturan itu dibuat bukan hanya untuk menakut-nakuti penjahat tetapi juga dapat memperbaiki dirinya. Dan pidana yang diberikan bisa manjadikan mereka tidak berdaya. Selain itu pemidanaan juga mengutamakan perlindungan tata tertib masyarakat.

2.5  Keadaan Hukum Pidana di Indonesia

1.             Penyebab Terjadinya Masalah Pada Penegakan Hukum Di Indonesia

Ada dua faktor yang menyebabkan hukum di Indonesia itu dirasakan lemah, kurang dapat menciptakan ketertiban dan mampu menyelesaikan permasalahan masyarakat, sehingga kerap kali menimbulkan berbagai masalah berupa keberpihakan terhadap salah satu pihak sehingga hukum yang ditujukan untuk mengadili malah tidak berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Kedua faktor tersebut yaitu sebagai berikut:

1.      Aparat Penegak Hukum/Alat Penegak Hukum

Polisi, Jaksa, Advokat, Hakim, Lembaga Pemasyarakatan dan Eksekutor

2.      Sanksi/Hukuman

Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana (KUHP) serta sumber hukum lainnya hingga saat ini masih menerapkan sanksi yang lemah sehingga kurang mampu memberi efek jera dan menyadarkan masyarakat. Begitu banyak peraturan hukum yang dibuat oleh para penegak hukum untuk mengatur kehidupan masyarakat, tapi faktanya walaupun hukum tersebut dibuat beserta sanksinya tapi tetap saja peraturan tersebut dikarenakan pemerintah dan aparat hukum tidak sungguh-sungguh dalam menegakkannya, setelah peraturan dibuat praktek dilapangan begitu banyak pelanggaran-pelanggaran yang masih bisa ditolerir. 

2.             Dampak yang Timbul dari Penegakan Hukum di Indonesia

Penyelewengan atau inkonsistensi di Indonesia berlangsung lama bertahun-tahun hingga sekarang, sehingga bagi masyarakat Indonesia ini merupakan rahasia umum, hukum yang dibuat berbeda dengan hukum yang dijalankan, contoh paling dekat dengan lingkungan adalah, penilangan pengemudi kendaraan yang melanggar tata tertib lalu lintas. Mereka yang melanggar tata tertib lalu lintas tidak jarang ingin berdamai di tempat atau menyelewengkan hukum, kemudian seharusnya aparat yang menegakkan hukum tersebut dapat menangi secara hukum yang berlaku di Indonesia, namun tidak jarang penegak hukum tersebut justru mengambil kesempatan yang tidak terpuji itu untuk menambah pundi-pundi uangnya.

Oleh karena itu, akibat-akibat yang ditimbulkan dari penegakan hukum di Indonesia yang sarat akan masalah penyelewengan hukum tersebut diantaranya , yaitu:

1.      Ketidakpercayaan masyarakat pada hukum.

2.      Penyelesaian konflik dengan kekerasan.

3.      Pemanfaatan Inkonsistensi Penegakan Hukum untuk Kepentingan Pribadi.

4.      Penggunaan Tekanan Asing dalam Proses Peradilan.

BAB III

PENUTUP

A. Kesimpulan

Hukum Pidana, sebagai salah satu bagian independen dari Hukum Publik merupakan salah satu instrumen hukum yang sangat urgen eksistensinya sejak zaman dahulu. Hukum ini ditilik sangat penting eksistensinya dalam menjamin keamanan masyarakat dari ancaman tindak pidana, menjaga stabilitas negara dan (bahkan) merupakan “lembaga moral” yang berperan merehabilitasi para pelaku pidana. Hukum ini terus berkembang sesuai dengan tuntutan tindak pidana yang ada di setiap masanya.

B. Kritik Dan Saran

Hukum di indonesia harus lebih di tegakkan agar permasalahan kasus-kasus hukum pidana di indonesia bisa diatur lebih baik lagi dan yang melanggar hukum harus diberi hukuman yang setimpal sesuai dengan Undang-undang.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Hamzah, andi,1984. bunga rampai hukum pidana dan acara pidana.Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia.

Hamzah, Andi. 1987. Pengantar Hukum Acara Pidana Indonesia. Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia.

Ali, Zainuddin Ali. 2006. Filsafat Hukum. Jakarta: Sinar Grafik.

Hilman Hadikusuma, Bahasa Hukum Indonesia, Bandung: Penerbit Alumni, 1992

Leden Marpaung, Asas-Teori-Praktek Hukum Pidana, Jakarta: Sinar  Grafika, 2005

Seno.Oemar,Adji, Perkembangan Hukum Pidana & Hukum Acara Pidana Sekarang Dan Dimasa Jang Akan datang, Jakarta CV. Pantjuran Tujuh 1971.

MAKALAH SOCIETY ORGANIZED

MAKALAH SOCIETY ORGANIZED

CHAPTER I

 PREVACE

1.      BACKGROUND

Today's business world is very developed, ranging from small businesses, medium to large businesses. But the problem is that not many people know about business organizations, so their business has not used the right business structure. There are also many people who do not know about the forms of business organizations, so they do not know what form of business they are running.

For a business to run successfully it needs to be organized. In organizing a business, of course, you must pay attention to the existing business elements. Business elements that need the attention of entrepreneurs, namely the business environment. The environment has a huge influence on the efficiency of the company's operations and its ability to obtain profits. For that reason, every owner and business leader must be able to understand the state of the environment and the environmental impact on its business. Likewise with business organizations, a business will become clear when structured.

In the business world a goal is to organize a business. Organizational goals are needs that want to be fulfilled in a certain period of time. Vision is a long-term desire, realized through efforts to achieve short-term goals (annual). This goal is to be achieved by the people who make up the organization.

2.      FORMULA FOR TROUBLE

• How our society organized

• Economic system?

• How our government is organized ?

• How business is organized ?

• How economic system indonesia and u.s?

• How the healthy economy ?

3.      DIRECTION

• For know and understanding society organized.

• For know and understanding economic system.

• For know and understanding government is organized.

• For know and understanding how business is organized.

• For know and understanding economic system indonesia and u.s

•  For know and understanding the healthy economy

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

1.      HOW OUR SOCIETY ORGANIZED

The Republic of Indonesia was declared in 1945, with a proclaimed jurisdiction over the present area from Sabang in Sumatra to Merauke in Papua, or the entire area of the former Dutch (or Netherlands) East Indies. Although the Netherlands retained possession of a large part of this region (including Papua), a provisional capital was established in Yogyakarta, the stronghold of the revolution.

With the close of the struggle for independence in 1949, the Republic of the United States of Indonesia was established. The federal system did not last, however, and in 1950 the federated governments unanimously decided to return to a “unitary”—or more centralized—form of government, as well as to the name Republic of Indonesia. After some difficulties, the constitution of 1945 was reinstated by presidential decree. This constitution has remained the basis of Indonesia’s government, although some significant amendments were made during a period of reformasi (reformation) around the turn of the 21st century.

2.      ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Economic system, any of the ways in which humankind has arranged for its material provisioning. One would think that there would be a great variety of such systems, corresponding to the many cultural arrangements that have characterized human society. Surprisingly, that is not the case. Although a wide range of institutions and social customs have been associated with the economic activities of society, only a very small number of basic modes of provisioning can be discovered beneath this variety. Indeed, history has produced but three such kinds of economic systems: those based on the principle of tradition, those centrally planned and organized according to command, and the rather small number, historically speaking, in which the central organizing form is the market.

The very paucity of fundamental modes of economic organization calls attention to a central aspect of the problem of economic “systems”—namely, that the objective to which all economic arrangements must be addressed has itself remained unchanged throughout human history. Simply stated, this unvarying objective is the coordination of the individual activities associated with provisioning—activities that range from providing subsistence foods in hunting and gathering societies to administrative or financial tasks in modern industrial systems. What may be called “the economic problem” is the orchestration of these activities into a coherent social whole—coherent in the sense of providing a social order with the goods or services it requires to ensure its own continuance and to fulfill its perceived historic mission.

Social coordination can in turn be analyzed as two distinct tasks. The first of these is the production of the goods and services needed by the social order, a task that requires the mobilization of society’s resources, including its most valuable, human effort. Of nearly equal importance is the second task, the appropriate distribution of the product. (See distribution theory.) This distribution not only must provide for the continuance of a society’s labour supply (even slaves had to be fed) but also must accord with the prevailing values of different social orders, all of which favour some recipients of income over others—men over women, aristocrats over commoners, property owners over nonowners, or political party members over nonmembers. In standard textbook treatments, the economic problem of production and distribution is summarized by three questions that all economic systems must answer: what goods and services are to be produced, how goods and services are to be produced and distributed, and for whom the goods and services are to be produced and distributed.

All modes of accomplishing these basic tasks of production and distribution rely on social rewards or penalties of one kind or another. Tradition-based societies depend largely on communal expressions of approval or disapproval. Command systems utilize the open or veiled power of physical coercion or punishment, or the bestowal of wealth or prerogatives. The third mode—the market economy—also brings pressures and incentives to bear, but the stimuli of gain and loss are not usually within the control of any one person or group of persons. Instead, the incentives and pressures emerge from the “workings” of the system itself, and, on closer inspection, those workings turn out to be nothing other than the efforts of individuals to gain financial rewards by supplying the things that others are willing to pay for.

There is a paradoxical aspect to the manner in which the market resolves the economic problem. In contrast to the conformity that guides traditional society or the obedience to superiors that orchestrates command society, behaviour in a market society is mostly self-directed and seems, accordingly, an unlikely means for achieving social integration. Yet, as economists ever since Adam Smith have delighted in pointing out, the clash of self-directed wills in the competitive market environment serves as an essential legal and social precondition for the market system to operate. Thus, the competitive engagement of self-seeking individuals results in the creation of the third, and by all odds the most remarkable, of the three modes of solving the economic problem.

Not surprisingly, these three principal solutions—of tradition, command, and market—are distinguished by the distinct attributes they impart to their respective societies. The coordinative mechanism of tradition, resting as it does on the perpetuation of social roles, is marked by a characteristic changelessness in the societies in which it is dominant. Command systems, on the other hand, are marked by their capacity to mobilize resources and labour in ways far beyond the reach of traditional societies, so that societies with command systems typically boast of large-scale achievements such as the Great Wall of China or the Egyptian pyramids. The third system, that in which the market mechanism plays the role of energizer and coordinator, is in turn marked by a historical attribute that resembles neither the routines of traditional systems nor the grandiose products of command systems. Instead, the market system imparts a galvanic charge to economic life by unleashing competitive, gain-oriented energies. This charge is dramatically illustrated by the trajectory of capitalism, the only social order in which the market mechanism has played a central role. In The Communist Manifesto, published in 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote that in less than a century the capitalist system had created “more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together.” They also wrote that it was “like the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells.” That creative, revolutionary, and sometimes disruptive capacity of capitalism can be traced in no small degree to the market system that performs its coordinative task. (For discussion of the political and philosophical aspects of capitalism, see liberalism. For discussion of the political and philosophical aspects of communism and socialism, see communism and socialism.)

3.      HOW OUR GOVERNMENT IS ORGANIZED

Indonesia is divided into some 30 propinsi, or provinsi (provinces), plus the two daerah istimewa (special districts) of Yogyakarta in central Java and Aceh in northern Sumatra and the daerah khusus ibukota (special capital district) of metropolitan Jakarta, known as Jakarta Raya. On the smaller islands, most administrative regions were created to coincide with traditional regions, the boundaries of which were defined largely by natural geographic features; on the larger islands, by contrast, administrative boundaries were constructed to simplify complex traditional and cultural divisions. The province of Central Java (Jawa Tengah), for instance, spans not only the core of the island of Java but also the core of Javanese culture. Within the province’s borders lie the semiautonomous special district of Yogyakarta and the city of Surakarta (Solo), both of which are historical court centres that maintain traditional rulers (albeit without real political power). Similarly, the provinces of West Java (Jawa Barat) and Banten, on the western part of the island, coincide with the geographic, cultural, and linguistic terrain of the Sundanese people.

The number of first-order political subdivisions has changed since the end of the 20th century. East Timor (declared a province in 1976) gained its independence in 1999. In addition, largely as a result of the push to decentralize in the early 21st century, several new provinces were created out of the existing structure. The province of Banten (2000) was formed from the western tip of West Java. West Papua (Papua Barat; 2006) was created from the western end of Papua. North Kalimantan (Kalimantan Utara; 2012) was split off from East Kalimantan. New provinces in Celebes included Gorontalo (2000; government installed in 2001) on the northern peninsula and West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat; 2004) in the island’s west-central coastal region. The Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau; 2002; government installed in 2004) and Bangka Belitung (2000; government installed in 2001) were created from islands off Sumatra’s eastern shore.

Each of the more than 300 second-order subdivisions, kabupaten (regencies), is headed by a bupati (governor) and has a local legislature. More than 5,000 third-order divisions, kecamatan (districts), and several dozen kota (cities) have obtained autonomous status. Since 1999 district and city leaders have been chosen through direct local elections. Members of the Local Councils of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah), which deal more directly with the national legislature, also are selected through general election.

Villages (kampung) and groups of villages (desa), which exist in both rural and urban areas, provide the link between the people and the central government on the district level. Kampung and desa heads are usually elected in rural areas and appointed in urban ones; they are all local government employees. Normally, a village has two levels of neighbourhood organization, a rukun warga (RW; community association) and rukun tetangga (RT; neighbourhood associations). These bodies elect their chairpersons.

4.      HOW BUSINESS IS ORGANIZED

VOA Special English Economics Report written by Mario Ritter.

Businesses are structured in different ways to meet different needs. The simplest form of business is called an individual or sole proprietorship. The proprietor owns all of the property of the business and is responsible for everything. For legal purposes, with this kind of business, the owner and the company are the same. This means the proprietor gets to keep all of the profits of the business, but must also pay any debts. Another kind of business is the partnership. Two or more people go into business together. An agreement is usually needed to decide how much of the partnership each person controls.

One kind of partnership is called a limited liability partnership. These have full partners and limited partners. Limited partners may not share as much in the profits, but they also have less responsibility for the business.

Doctors, lawyers and accountants often form partnerships to share their risks and profits. A husband and wife can form a business partnership together.

Partnerships exist only for as long as the owners remain alive. The same is true of individual proprietorships.

But corporations are designed to have an unlimited lifetime. A corporation is the most complex kind of business organization.

Corporations can sell stock as a way to raise money. Stock represents shares of ownership in a company. Investors who buy stock can trade their shares or keep them as long as the company is in business.

A company might use some of its earnings to pay dividends as a reward to shareholders. Or the company might reinvest the money back into the business.

If shares lose value, investors can lose all of the money they paid for their stock. But shareholders are not responsible for the debts of the corporation. A corporation is recognized as an entity -- its own legal being, separate from its owners. A board of directors controls corporate policies. The directors appoint top company officers. The directors might or might not hold shares in the corporation

Corporations can have a few major shareholders. Or ownership can be spread among the general public. But not all corporations are traditional businesses that sell stock. Some nonprofit groups are also organized as corporations.

5.      THE HEALTHY ECONOMY

Indonesia has a national health care network that offers treatment either free of charge or for a nominal cost through several types of medical facilities. District medical centres, the most comprehensive of which combine general medical clinics with maternal and child-health centres, provide services in family planning, school health, nutrition, communicable-disease control, health statistics, environmental health, health education, dental health, and public-health nursing. The district centres also supervise the community and village health centres (puskesmas), which are the primary health providers in rural areas. A third type of public medical facility is the posyandu, an integrated health-service post that is designed to serve those whose health is most at risk. These posts are more widely available than the village health centres and offer a variety of services to women and children in particular, ranging from immunizations and nutrition counseling to family planning.

In general, the cost of specialized health care, as provided by private hospitals and doctors, is beyond the reach of Indonesians in both the low- and middle-income groups. A government-sponsored health insurance system for specialized care was introduced in the late 20th century, but has been slow to cover people working in small private companies or in the informal sector. Many companies provide medical assistance to employees, but there is no legal requirement to do so.

Most of the major communicable diseases in Indonesia are well under control. Malaria and tuberculosis are no longer persistent health problems, but outbreaks of dengue and cholera still occur. Heart problems and strokes have become more common, owing at least in part to changes in diet that have accompanied economic growth since the 1970s. Cancer also has become more widespread. Drug addiction has increased notably, particularly among young people in the urban centres, and there has been a sharp rise in HIV infection and cases of AIDS, especially since the end of the 20th century.

One of the most serious public health problems is the shortage of medical and paramedical personnel, mainly nurses and midwives. Although all new graduates of the government’s medical schools are required to work for one year in rural areas, few doctors choose to stay in such regions after fulfilling their service obligation. Outside the major urban centres, many people use traditional healers, called dukun. An indigenous midwife (paraji or dukun beranak), often with limited training, assists many of the births in Indonesia; extensive training programs have been implemented to bring the paraji toward the standards of qualified midwives. Such programs contributed to a significant drop in the infant mortality rate—from well above to well below the world average—from the mid-20th to the early 21st century.

Another important public health issue, family planning (keluarga berancana; commonly called “KB”), conceptually runs counter to traditional views, and there was much resistance to such programs when they were introduced. A massive attempt has been made to provide information on family planning to women of childbearing age, typically through clinics that are run by the Department of Health. This program has achieved considerable success, particularly in Java and Bali, and has come to be considered a model in Asia.

6.      ECONOMIC SYSTEM INDONESIA AND U.S

v  Indonesia has played a modest role in the world economy since the mid-20th century, and its importance has been considerably less than its size, resources, and geographic position would seem to warrant. The country is a major exporter of crude petroleum and natural gas. In addition, Indonesia is one of the world’s main suppliers of rubber, coffee, cocoa, and palm oil; it also produces a wide range of other commodities, such as sugar, tea, tobacco, copra, and spices (e.g., cloves). Nearly all commodity production comes from large estates. Widespread exploration for deposits of oil and other minerals has resulted in a number of large-scale projects that have contributed substantially to general development funds.

Although Indonesia has remained a major importer of manufactured goods, high technology, and technical skills since the early 1970s, the country’s economic base has shifted from the primary sector to secondary and tertiary industries—manufacturing, trade, and services. Manufacturing surpassed agriculture in terms of contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) in the early 1990s and has continued to be the largest single component of the country’s economy. A significant portion of the national budget has continued to be allocated to agriculture, however; consequently, the country has remained self-sufficient in rice production since the mid-1980s.

During the early years of Indonesia’s independence, economic mismanagement and the subordination of development to political ideals under the “Guided Economy” policy of the country’s first president, Sukarno (1949–66), led to financial chaos and to a serious deterioration in the capital stock. With a major change of economic direction after Suharto assumed power in the mid-1960s, some measure of stability was regained, and the conditions for an orderly policy of rehabilitation and economic development were established.

From 1969 to 1998 a series of five-year plans emphasized the government’s role in developing the economic infrastructure of the country, notably in agriculture, irrigation, transportation, and communications. Thus, the government, together with foreign aid, has been a major force in propelling development in areas where private enterprise has not been immediately forthcoming; the state-owned oil company Pertamina was a product of these government initiatives. In the late 20th century, the emphasis in the public sector tended increasingly toward independent, self-financing state enterprises.

Substantial expansion of the private sector has been evident since the mid-1990s. Prior to that time, growth generally had been confined to a rather small group of conglomerates, most benefiting from the government’s favour. Small business was slower to develop. The deregulation of the capital market in the early 1980s triggered spectacular growth in the stock exchange, but despite the increase in domestic investment, direct participation in the stock market remained limited to a very small group of investors.

Foreign direct investment spiked in the 1990s but rapidly receded in the aftermath of the Asian economic crisis sparked by the collapse of the Thai baht in 1997. The government subsequently inaugurated a four-year national development plan that helped return the economy to its precrisis strength. By 2003 the country was stable enough to allow the expiration of an economic reform program that had been sponsored by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). A new development strategy involving liberalization in some areas and limitation of foreign ownership in others has aimed to establish Indonesia as a fully self-sufficient (swasembada) country in the 21st century.

In every economic system, entrepreneurs and managers bring together natural resources, labor, and technology to produce and distribute goods and services. But the way these different elements are organized and used also reflects a nation's political ideals and its culture.

The United States is often described as a "capitalist" economy, a term coined by 19th-century German economist and social theorist Karl Marx to describe a system in which a small group of people who control large amounts of money, or capital, make the most important economic decisions. Marx contrasted capitalist economies to "socialist" ones, which vest more power in the political system. Marx and his followers believed that capitalist economies concentrate power in the hands of wealthy business people, who aim mainly to maximize profits; socialist economies, on the other hand, would be more likely to feature greater control by government, which tends to put political aims -- a more equal distribution of society's resources, for instance -- ahead of profits.

While those categories, though oversimplified, have elements of truth to them, they are far less relevant today. If the pure capitalism described by Marx ever existed, it has long since disappeared, as governments in the United States and many other countries have intervened in their economies to limit concentrations of power and address many of the social problems associated with unchecked private commercial interests. As a result, the American economy is perhaps better described as a "mixed" economy, with government playing an important role along with private enterprise.

Although Americans often disagree about exactly where to draw the line between their beliefs in both free enterprise and government management, the mixed economy they have developed has been remarkably successful.

Kind of Economic Indonesian Business are:

1)      Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

2)      Resources and power

3)      Manufacturing

            4)      Finance

            5)      Trade

           6)      Labour

           7)      Transportation and telecommunications

            8)      Roads and railways

            9)      Water and air transport

The first ingredient of a nation's economic system is its natural resources. The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is blessed with a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent, and the Great Lakes -- five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada -- provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's 50 individual states together in a single economic unit.

The second ingredient is labor, which converts natural resources into goods. The number of available workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of an economy. Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, and that, in turn, has helped fuel almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African-Americans whose ancestors were brought to the Americas as slaves. In the early years of the 20th century, large numbers of Asians immigrated to the United States, while many Latin American immigrants came in later years.

Although the United States has experienced some periods of high unemployment and other times when labor was in short supply, immigrants tended to come when jobs were plentiful. Often willing to work for somewhat lower wages than acculturated workers, they generally prospered, earning far more than they would have in their native lands. The nation prospered as well, so that the economy grew fast enough to absorb even more newcomers.
     The quality of available labor -- how hard people are willing to work and how skilled they are -- is at least as important to a country's economic success as the number of workers. In the early days of the United States, frontier life required hard work, and what is known as the Protestant work ethic reinforced that trait. A strong emphasis on education, including technical and vocational training, also contributed to America's economic success, as did a willingness to experiment and to change.

 Labor mobility has likewise been important to the capacity of the American economy to adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly, economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from southern farms in the first half of the 20th century.

Labor-force quality continues to be an important issue. Today, Americans consider "human capital" a key to success in numerous modern, high-technology industries. As a result, government leaders and business officials increasingly stress the importance of education and training to develop workers with the kind of nimble minds and adaptable skills needed in new industries such as computers and telecommunications.

But natural resources and labor account for only part of an economic system. These resources must be organized and directed as efficiently as possible. In the American economy, managers, responding to signals from markets, perform this function. The traditional managerial structure in America is based on a top-down chain of command; authority flows from the chief executive in the boardroom, who makes sure that the entire business runs smoothly and efficiently, through various lower levels of management responsible for coordinating different parts of the enterprise, down to the foreman on the shop floor. Numerous tasks are divided among different divisions and workers. In early 20th-century America, this specialization, or division of labor, was said to reflect "scientific management" based on systematic analysis.

Many enterprises continue to operate with this traditional structure, but others have taken changing views on management. Facing heightened global competition, American businesses are seeking more flexible organization structures, especially in high-technology industries that employ skilled workers and must develop, modify, and even customize products rapidly. Excessive hierarchy and division of labor increasingly are thought to inhibit creativity. As a result, many companies have "flattened" their organizational structures, reduced the number of managers, and delegated more authority to interdisciplinary teams of workers.

Before managers or teams of workers can produce anything, of course, they must be organized into business ventures. In the United States, the corporation has proved to be an effective device for accumulating the funds needed to launch a new business or to expand an existing one. The corporation is a voluntary association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs.
     Corporations must have financial resources to acquire the resources they need to produce goods or services. They raise the necessary capital largely by selling stock (ownership shares in their assets) or bonds (long-term loans of money) to insurance companies, banks, pension funds, individuals, and other investors. Some institutions, especially banks, also lend money directly to corporations or other business enterprises. Federal and state governments have developed detailed rules and regulations to ensure the safety and soundness of this financial system and to foster the free flow of information so investors can make well-informed decisions.

The gross domestic product measures the total output of goods and services in a given year. In the United States it has been growing steadily, rising from more than $3.4 trillion in 1983 to around $8.5 trillion by 1998. But while these figures help measure the economy's health, they do not gauge every aspect of national well-being. GDP shows the market value of the goods and services an economy produces, but it does not weigh a nation's quality of life. And some important variables -- personal happiness and security, for instance, or a clean environment and good health -- are entirely beyond its scope.

CHAPTER III

CLOSING

1.      CONCLUSSION

From this material we can conclude that this time of learning can make us understand and know about the Indonesian economic system of business and us, the Indonesian government system and the organizational structure of the income of the people.

2.      SUGGESTION

So that we can describe the subject matter became the subject of this paper,of course,there are still many shortcoming and weaknesses,because they limited knowledge and lack of referral or reference that has to do with the title of this paper.

Writer much hope dear reader dusi give constructive critism and suggestions to the author of this paper and for the sake of perfect and writing papers in the next opportunities.hopefully this paper is useful for writers in particular also dear readers in general.

REFERENCESS

https://www.britannica.com/topic/economic-system

https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Government-and-society

https;//usa.usembassy.de/etexts/oecon/chap2.htm

https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/a-quick-lesson-in-ways-businesses-are-organized-102079053/112851.html