Summary The Post Method Era : Toward Informed Approaches
A.
The Dysfunction Of The Theory
Practice Dichotomy
Mark
clarke (1994) an implicit assumption about the relationship between what we
have customarily called “theory“ and “practice”. By theory professional
journals and books sometimes implied a creator or theorist,who carried out
research and propussed the rudiments of an organized set of hypotheses and
sometimes then further proposed a methodological “application” of the theory
(hence the perhaps misguided term “applied linguistics”). The practice part of
the formula was thought to be the province of claassroom teachers who all too
gladly accepted the theorist’s pronouncements which came in the form of a method.The
relationship between the theorist and pracititioner was (and in some cases
still is) similar to that of a producer of goods and a consumer or customer.
B.
An Enlightened ,Eclectic Approach
Approach
is guide by a number of factors : your own experience as a learner in
classroom,whatever teachingexperience you may already have had,classroom
observations you have made,books you
have read,and previous courses in the field.There are three reasons for
variation at the approach level :
a.
An approach is by definition
dynamic and therefore subject to alterations and modification as a result of
one’s observation and experience.
b.
Research in second languange
acquisition and pedagogy almost always fields findings that are not conclusive
but are subject to interpretation and
c.
We are constantly making new
discoveries about languange learning and teaching as our profesional stockpile
of knowledge and experience builds
In the move away from teachers
following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach is the label given to
a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching
approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach
to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group.
Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.
Example: The class starts with an
inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of synonyms of
movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In another class
the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the
instructions for an exercise manual.
In the classroom : A typical lesson
might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and TBL (the examples);
the communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap activities; the lexical
approach, e.g. focusing on lexical chunks in reading; and the
structural-situational approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the
presentation of new structures.
C.
Communicative Languange Teaching
The
communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully
comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in
real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be
used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
Example : Practising question forms by asking
learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an example
of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication.
In the classroom : Classroom activities guided by
the communicative approach are characterised by trying to produce meaningful
and real communication, at all levels. As a result there may be more emphasis
on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and there may be use
of authentic materials.
Savigon
(2005) , communicative languange teaching(CLT) is an accepted paradigma with
many interpretations and manifestation. For other kummaravadivelu (2006) CLT is
laden with issues of “acceptability and adaptability” and insted we are
exhorted to embrace task based languange teaching as a more appropriate model.
Characteristics
of a CLT Approach :
1.
Overall goals,CLT suggests a
focus on all of the components
(grammatical,discourse,functional,sosiolinguistics,and strategic of
communicative competence.Goals therefore must intervwine the organizational
(grammatical,discourse) aspects of languange with the
pragmatic(functional,sociolinguistics,strategi) aspect.
2.
Relationship of form and function. Laguange technique are designed to
engage learners in the pragmatics,authentic,functional use of languange for
meaningful purpose.Organizational languange form are not the central focus,but
remain as important components of languange that enable the learner to
accomplish those purposes.
3.
Fluency And
Accuracy.
A focus on students “flow” of comprehension and production and a focus on the
formal accuracy of production are seen as complementary principles underlying
communicative technique. At times fluency may have to take on more importance
than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in languange
use.At other times the students will be encouraged to attend to correctness.
Part of the teacher’s responbility is to offer approriate corrective feeback on
learners errors.
4.
Focus on real
world context.
Students in communicative class ultimately have to use the
languange,productively and receptively,in unrehearsed context outside the
classroom. Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills
necessary for communication in those contexts.
5.
Autonomy and
strategic in volvement. Student are given opportunities to focus in their
own learning process through raising their awareness of their own styles of
learning (strengths,weaknesses,prederences) and through the development of awarness
and action will help to develop autonumous learners capable of continuing to
learn the languange beyond the classroom and the course.
6.
Teacher roles. The role of the
teacher is that of facilitator and guide not an all knowing font of knowledge,
The teacher is an empathetic “coach” who varies the students linguistic
development. Students are encourged to construct meaning through geniune.
Linguistict interaction with other students and with the teacher.
7.
Students role. Students in a
CLT class are active participants in their own learning process.
Learner-centered,cooperative,collaborative learning is emphasized but not at
the expense appropriate teacher-centered activity.
D.Task-Based
Languange Teaching
On
of the most prominent perspectives withing the CLT framework is Task-Based
Languange Teaching. While some researchers (kumaravadivelu,2006) argue that
TBLT is a significantly different approach,other proponents (Ellis,2003) would
claim that TBLT is at the very heart of
CLT. This approach puts the use of task at the core of languange teaching.
While there is a good deal of variation among experts on how do describe of
define task,Petter Skehan’s (1998,p.95) concepts of task still captures the
essential. He defines task as an activity.
Task
based instruction is a perspective withing a CLT framewrok that forces you to
carefully consider all the technique that you use in the classroom in term of a
number of important pedagogical purposes .
Characteristic
of TBLT :
1.
Task ultimately point learners
beyond the forms of languange alone to real world contexts.
2.
Task specifically contribute to
communivative goals.
3.
Their elements are carefully
designed and not simply haphaszardly or idiosyncratically thrown together.
4.
Their objectives are well
specifield so that you can at some later point accurately determine the success
of one task over another.
5.
Task engage learners ,at some
levelin genuine problem solving activity.
Task-based language teaching provides
many benefits to aid foreign language learning. Ellis (2009) lists these
benefits as follows:
Ø TBLT
provides the opportunity for ‘natural’ learning within the classroom context.
Ø It
stresses meaning over form; however, it can also emphasize learning form.
Ø It
offers learners a fertile input of target language.
Ø It
is intrinsically motivating.
Ø It
is consistent with a learner-focused educational philosophy but also
gives permission for teacher input and
guidance.
Ø It
contributes to the improvement of communicative fluency while not disregarding
accuracy.
Ø It
can be deployed together with a more traditional approach.
E.Learners
Centered Instrucion
This
term applies to curricula as well as to specific technique. It can be
contrasted with teacher centered instruction
and has received various recent interpretions. Learner centered
instruction includes :
1.
Technique that focus on or
account for learners need,style, and goals
2.
Technique that give some control to
the student ( group work or strategy training for example)
3.
Curricula that include the
consultion and input of students and that do not presuppose objectivies in
advance
4.
Technique that allow for the
student creativity and inovation
5.
Technique that enhance a students
sense of competence and self worth
These
are 7 characteristics of teacher-centered instruction :
1.
The teacher is the center of knowledge
and in charge of learning
2.
Students are usually passively
receiving information.
3.
The instructor’s role is to be
primary information giver and primary evaluator.
4.
Students are viewed as “empty
vessels” who passively receive knowledge from their teachers.
5.
Teachers and professors act as
the sole supplier of knowledge, and under the direct instruction model,
teachers often utilize systematic, scripted lesson plans.
6.
Teacher Centered Instruction is
fairly low-tech, often relying on the use of textbooks and workbooks instead of
computers
7.
Assessments are in many cases
only carried out as summative and not formative evaluations and they rarely
address qualitative issues of the learner’s progress.
F.Cooperative
Learning
Cooperative
learning is sometimes thought to be synonymous with collaborative
learning. To be sure, in a cooperative clasroom the student and theachers
work together to purpurea goals and objectives. But cooperative learning
" Ia more structured, more prescriptive to teachers about Classroom
techiques, more Directive to students about how to work together in groups [
than f. collaborative learning ] "( oxford, 1997,p 443).In cooperative
learning models, a group learning activity is de pendent on the socially
structured exchange of information between learners. In collaborative
learning, the learning Enggeh" With more Copable others ( teachers,
advanced peers, etc) Who provide Assistance anda quldence" (Oxford,
1997,p 444).Collaborative learning midels have been Deve loped within social an
constructivist ( see chapter 1 of p LLT) schools of thought to promote
communities of learners that cut across the usual hierarchies of student and
teachers.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Cooperative Learning
Models or Cooperative Learning.
The strengths of cooperative learning are :
a) gives
students the opportunity to find their own concepts and ways to solve problems,
b) provide
opportunities for students to create creativity in communicating with peer
groups,
c) accustom
students to be convincing open but firm,
d) increase
student learning motivation,
e) helps
teachers achieve their learning goals. Because the steps of cooperative
learning are easy to apply in school,
f) encourage
teacher motivation to develop supportive media, because media is very important
in cooperative learning.
The weakness
of the cooperative learning model is the need for a long time to conduct
discussions, such as ordinary group learning, students who are good at
mastering the course of the discussion, so students who are less clever are
less fortunate to issue their opinions, who do not need to learn by learning.
In addition, in applying the cooperative learning model, groups are in need and
difficult to work together.
G.Interactive Learning
At the heart
of current theres of communicative comptence ia the assentially in teractive
nature of communication. When you speak, for example the extent to which
your intended messege is receved is a factor of both your production anda the
listeners reception most meaning, in a samatic sense, is a product of
negotiation, of give anda take, as interiocutors attempt to communicate, thus,
the communicative purpose of, language compels us to create opportunities for
genuine interaction in the Classroom. An Interactive couse or technique
will provide for such negotiation Interactive classes will most likely be
found.
According to
Suparman in Abdul Majid (2014: 85), interactive learning has the following
characteristics:
a)
There are variations of classical, group and
individual activities
b)
The mental involvement (thoughts, feelings) of
students is high
c)
The teacher acts as a facilitator, resource person,
and democratic classroom manager
d)
Implement multi-directional communication patterns
e)
A class atmosphere that is flexible, democratic,
challenging, and kept under control by goals
f)
Potential can produce a more effective accompaniment
effect
g)
Can be used inside or outside the classroom
The strength
of the interactive learning model as proposed by Suprayekti in Abdul Majid
(2014: 91) is that students learn to ask questions, try to formulate questions,
and try to find answers to their own questions by observing. In this way,
students become critical and active in learning. As for the weaknesses of this
learning model, it really depends on the teacher's ability to organize and
develop group dynamics.
H.Whole Language Education
A term that
once swept through our profession and is still in common use is whole language
education. Unfortunately lost the impact that is once had. Intially the term
come from reading research and wad used to emphsize.
This
methodology involves teaching reading skills in the context of interesting and
stimulating literature. Supporters of this method believe children will learn
to read naturally, just as they learn to talk and walk. By immersing children
in good books, you can produce fluent and capable readers.
Teaching Principles
Ø In the whole
language approach reading should not be taught, but rather acquired through
trial and error. The teacher facilitates the learning process, but provides
little direct instruction.
Ø Literature
is used to excite the child about learning to read so that the child begins to
memorise the many words he sees in books. Phonics is also taught, but within
the context of the book being read. The teacher aims to point out phonic
connections as they appear in the text.
Ø There is an
emphasis on comprehension as the ultimate goal of reading. It is considered
more important that a child accurately understands the meaning of what he is
reading, even if he does not recognise every individual word accurately.
Ø Children are
encouraged to guess unfamiliar words using picture or context clues.
Ø Children are
also encouraged to use invented spelling to write their own stories.
Whole language is a label that has been used to
describe:
·
cooperative learning
·
participatory learning
· student
centered learning
· focus on the
community of learners
· focus on the
social nature of language
· use of
outhentic, natural language
·
meaning centered language.
Advantages
- Children
are exposed to outstanding children’s literature from the very beginning
of their reading experiences. They are not asked to read artificially
simplified or contrived language. This makes reading more interesting for
them.
- They
have a better understanding of what they are reading, and a more
interesting and creative approach to reading.
- There
are no lists of sounds or rules to be learnt.
- Children
are able to observe real reading behaviours in non-threatening situations
and to imitate such behaviours without fear or shame.
Disadvantages
- Children
do not get a full phonic foundation and so are unable to decipher
unfamiliar words.
- Accuracy
and correctness can be overlooked. A child might be praised for overall
language use, even if he has misspelled many words.
- There is a lack of structure in this method of teaching which puts a heavy burden on the teacher to develop their own curriculum and may be difficult for children who prefer a more organised way of learning.
I.Other Candidates For CLT
Aproaches
Richard and
rodgers (2001) included multiple interlligences, neurliguistic programming, the
lexical approach, and completency-based teaching among their approaches an
methoods. larsen- Freeman(2002) described the partisipatoris approach,
learning strategy training, and multiple intelligences in her book on
teachniques and principles.Hermer (2001) adds humanistic teaching and the
lexical approach to his list of approach and multiple intelligences. Lexical approach is the hypothesis thet the
assenal building block of language are words and word combinations, and that
lexis therefore plays a central rol in designing language courses and Classroom
methodology.michael lewis (1997) is perhaps the nest-known advocate for a
lexical approach to L2 teaching. krashen (1997), who maintained that one cantik
"do" Almost anything in a language with vocabulary, and one those
lexical units are internalized. Other (grammatical and discourse) elements of
language can be acquited, given a meaningful context.
References
Brown
H.Douglas(2007).Teaching by principles an
interactive approach to languange pedagogy:person :Longman,San Francisco State
University
https://englishpost.org/characteristics-teacher-centered-instruction/
